EETE2/464

DIRECT CURRENT
P OW E R
S YS T E M
VOLTAGE
E L E ME NT
T E S T I NG A ND
MA I NT E NA NCE
TESTING OF
ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT
 ❑Every electric wire in your plant – whether it’s in a motor,
What is generator, cable, switch, transformer, etc. – is carefully

“Good”
covered with some form of electrical insulation. The wire
itself is usually copper or aluminum, which is known to be a
good conductor of the electric current that powers your
Insulation? equipment. The insulation must be just the opposite from a
conductor: it should resist current and keep the current in its
path along the conductor.

Comparison of water flow (a) with electric current (b).

 ➢When your plant electrical system and equipment are
new, the electrical insulation should be in top notch
shape.
➢However, even today, insulation is subject to many
effects which can cause it to fail – mechanical damage,
Deterioration vibration, excessive heat or cold, dirt, oil, corrosive
vapors, moisture from processes, or just the humidity.
of Insulation ➢In various degrees, these enemies of insulation are at
work as time goes on – combined with the electrical
stresses that exist. As pin holes or cracks develop,
moisture and foreign matter penetrate the surfaces of
the insulation, providing a low resistance path for
leakage current.
 Measuring of
Insulation
Resistance
❑Good insulation has high
resistance; poor insulation,
relatively low resistance. The
actual resistance values can be
higher or lower, depending upon
such factors as the temperature or
moisture content of the insulation
(resistance decreases in
temperature or moisture).

Typical IR test instrument hook-up to measure insulation

resistance.
DC Voltage Insulation Test
When DC voltage is applied to an insulation, the electric field stress gives
rise to current conduction and electrical polarization. The current drawn by
the insulation may be analyzed into several components as follows:
➢Capacitance charging current
➢Dielectric absorption current
➢Surface leakage current
➢Partial discharge current(corona)
➢Volumetric leakage current
 Capacitance
charging current
❑The capacitance charging current is high as the
DC voltage is applied and can be calculated by
the formula
𝐸 −𝑡
𝑖𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑅𝐶
𝑅
Where:
𝑖𝑒 is the capacitance charging current
𝐸 is the voltage in kilovolts
C represents charging current
RA represents absorption current 𝑅 is the resistance in megohms
RL represents volumetric leakage current (dielectric loss)

Electrical circuit of insulation under DC voltage test. 𝐶 is the capacitance in microfarads

𝑡 is the time in seconds
Capacitance charging current
The charging current is a function of time and will decrease as the time of
the application of voltage increases. It is the initial charging current when
voltage is applied and therefore not of any value for test evaluation. Test
readings should not be taken until this current has decreased to a
sufficiently low value.
Dielectric absorption
current
The dielectric absorption current is also high as the test
voltage is applied and decreases as the voltage
application time increases, but at a slower rate than the
capacitance charging current. This current is not as high
as the capacitance charging current. The absorption
current can be divided into two currents called reversible
and irreversible charging currents.
Dielectric absorption current
This reversible charging current can be calculated by the formula:

𝑖𝑎 = 𝑉𝐶𝐷𝑇 −𝑛
Where:
𝑖𝑎 is the dielectric absorption current
𝑉 is the test voltage in kilovolts
𝐶 is the capacitance in microfarads
𝐷 is the proportionality constant
𝑇 is the time in seconds
𝑛 is a constant
Dielectric absorption current
The irreversible charging current is of the same general form as the
reversible charging current but is much smaller in magnitude. The
irreversible charging current is lost in the insulation and thus is not
recoverable. Again, sufficient time should be allowed before recording test
data so that the reversible absorption current has decreased to a low
value.
Surface leakage current
The surface leakage current is due to the conduction on the surface of the
insulation where the conductor emerges and points of ground potential.
This current is not desired in the test results and should therefore be
eliminated by carefully cleaning the surface of the conductor to eliminate
the leakage paths or should be captured and guarded out of the meter
reading.
Partial discharge current
The partial discharge current, also known as corona current, is caused by
overstressing of air at sharp corners of the conductor due to high test
voltage. This current is not desirable and should be eliminated by the use
of stress control shielding at such points during tests. This current does
not occur at lower voltages (below 4000 volts), such as insulation
resistance test voltages.
Volumetric leakage current
The volumetric leakage current that flows through the insulation volume
itself is of primary importance. This is the current that is used to evaluate
the conditions of the insulation system under test. Sufficient time should
be allowed for the volumetric current to stabilize before test readings are
recorded.
Dielectric Phenomena
and Polarization
Various leakage currents due to the
application of DC high voltage to an
insulation system.
Advantages and Disadvantages of DC Voltage Testing
❑Advantages:
1. DC test is preferred on equipment whose charging capacitance is very high, such as
cables.
2. DC voltage stress is considered much less damaging to insulation than AC voltages.
3. Time of voltage application is not as critical with DC voltage as with AC voltage.
4. Test can be stopped before equipment failure occurs.
5. Measurements can be taken concurrently.
6. Historical data can be compiled and made available for evaluation.
7. It is not necessary to make a separate insulation resistance test prior to making a DC
overpotential test.
8. Size and weight of equipment is significantly reduced compared to AC voltage test.
Advantages and Disadvantages of DC Voltage Testing
❑Disadvantages:
1. Stress distribution for transformers, motors, and generator winding is different for DC
voltage than is for AC voltage.
2. Residual charge after a DC voltage test must be carefully discharged.
3. Time required to conduct a DC high-potential (hi-pot) test is longer than for an AC hi-
pot test.
4. Literature governing DC testing of cables suggest possible harmful effects hi-pot DC
testing may have on some types of cables.
5. Defects, undetectable with DC, can cause failure under AC voltage test. • Voltage
may not stress uniformly the insulation system.
6. Temperature and voltage dependence of resistivity.
7. Space charge formation—future potential failures.
DC Testing Methods
➢Insulation resistance testing

➢High-potential (Hi-pot) voltage testing

 Insulation resistance
testing
This test may be conducted at
applied voltages of 100–15,000 V.
The instrument used is a
Megohmmeter, either hand
cranked, motor driven, or
electronic, which indicates the
insulation resistance in Megohms.
Insulation Tester
MEGGER
Property of EJS Multivector Solutions Inc.
The insulation resistance values by
themselves neither indicate the
weakness of the insulation nor its
total dielectric strength. However,
they can indicate the contamination
of the insulation and trouble ahead
within the insulation system if a
downward trend continued in the
insulation resistance values
Insulation resistance testing
Insulation resistance measurement values can be accomplished by four
common test methods:
➢Short-time readings
➢Time-resistance readings (dielectric absorption ratio [DAR] test)
➢Polarization index (PI) test
➢Step-voltage readings
 Short-time
readings
This test simply measures the
insulation resistance value for a
short duration of time, such as
30 or 60 sec.

Typical curve of insulation resistance (in megohms) with

time for the “short time” or “spot-reading” test method.
 Time-resistance readings
(dielectric absorption ratio
[DAR] test)
The ratio of a 60 s reading to a 30 s reading
is called the DAR. A DAR ratio below 1.25 is
cause for investigation and possible repair of
the electrical apparatus. When the insulation
is in good shape, the 60-second reading is
higher than the 30-second reading.

Typical card plot of a time-resistance or double-reading test.

 Polarization index (PI) test
The PI is the ratio of the insulation resistance
at 10 min to the insulation resistance at 1
min. A PI of less than 1 indicates equipment
deterioration and the need for immediate
maintenance. This test is used for dry
insulation systems such as dry type
transformers, cables, rotating machines, etc.

Typical curves showing dielectric absorption effect in a “time-resistance”

test, made on capacitive equipment
Condition of Insulation Indicated by
Dielectric Absorption Ratios
Step-voltage readings (DC Voltage Tip-Up Test)
In this method, voltage is applied in steps to the insulation under test by a
way of a controlled voltage method. As voltage is increased, the weak
insulation will show lower resistance that was not obvious at lower voltage
levels.
Effect of Temperature on Insulation Resistance
❑The resistance of insulating materials decreases markedly with an
increase in temperature. As we’ve seen, however, tests by the time-
resistance and step – voltage methods are relatively independent of
temperature effects, giving relative values.
❑Rule of thumb:
➢For every 10°C increase in temperature, halve the resistance; or, for
every 10°C decrease, double the resistance.
✓Ex: a two-megohm resistance at 20°C reduces to 1/2 megohm at
40°C.
Preparation of apparatus for testing
1. Take out service
✓ Shut down the apparatus.
✓ Open switches.
✓ De-energize.
✓ Disconnect from other equipment and circuits, including neutral and
protective (workmen’s temporary) ground connections.

Apparatus Under Test Must Not Be Live!

Preparation of apparatus for testing
2. Make sure just what is included in the test
✓ Inspect the installation very carefully to determine just what
equipment is connected and will be included in the test, especially if
it is difficult or expensive to disconnect associated apparatus and
circuits.
Preparation of apparatus for testing
3. Discharge capacitance
✓ It is very important that capacitance be discharged, both before and
after an insulation resistance test. It should be discharged for a
period about four times as long as test voltage was applied in a
previous test.
Preparation of apparatus for testing
Observe all rules for safety when taking equipment out of service. Block
out disconnect switches. Test for foreign or induced voltages. Apply
workmen’s grounds.
Connection for IR
Testing of Equipment
AC Motors
and Starting
Equipment
DC
Generators
and Motors
Wiring
Installation
Appliances, Meters, Instruments, & Miscellaneous Electrical
Apparatus
Control,
Signaling, &
Communication
Cables
Control, Signaling, & Communication Cables
Control,
Signaling, &
Communication
Cables
Power
Transformers
AC
Generators
 Insulation
Resistance Test
Values Electrical
Apparatus and
Systems
*In the absence of consensus standards dealing
with insulation resistance tests, the Standards
Review Council suggests the above
representative values.

*See Table 10.14 for temperature correction

factors.

*Test results are dependent on the temperature of

the insulating material and the humidity of the
surrounding environment at the time of the test.

*Insulation-resistance test data may be used to

establish a trending pattern. Deviations from the
baseline information permit evaluation of the
insulation.

From NETA Maintenance

Testing Specification Manual
(2001)
High-Potential Voltage Test
The DC Hi-pot Voltage Test is a voltage applied across the insulation at or
above the DC equivalent of the 60 Hz operating crest voltage (i.e., DC
value = RMS value of AC peak voltage).
Dielectric absorption test
The dielectric absorption test is conducted at voltages much higher than
the usual insulation resistance test values and can exceed 100 kV. This
test is an extension of the hi-pot test. Under this test, the voltage is applied
for an extended period of time, from 5 to 15 min. Periodic readings are
taken of the insulation resistance or leakage current. The test is evaluated
based on insulation resistance. If insulation is in good condition, the
apparent insulation resistance will increase as the test progresses. The
dielectric absorption tests are independent of the volume and the
temperature of the insulation under test.