TRANSFORMERS
Figure 1.20b: Three single-phase shell type construction
1.2.2 CONSTRUCTION
Transformers can be classified by tank construction and
core construction.
A. Tank Construction
Several types of transformer tank construction are used
to prevent exposing liquid to the atmosphere. These
types are as follows:
a. Free breathing: This type is open to the atmosphere
(i.e., the airspace above the liquid is at atmospheric
pressure). The transformer breathes as the air pressure
and temperature change outside the tank. Some of these
transformers can be equipped with dehydrating
compounds in the breather.
b. Conservator or Expansion-tank: These
transformers are equipped with small expansion tanks
above the transformer tank. The transformer tank is
completely filled with oil, and the transformer breathes
by means of this small tank, usually through a
dehydrating compound. The purpose of the small tank
is to seal the transformer fluid from the atmosphere and
to reduce oxidization and formation of sludge
. (i.e., vaporization cooling known as pool boiling). The
Figure 1.17: A transformer with a conservator tank
c. Sealed tank: These transformers are equipped with
an inert gas, such as nitrogen that is under pressure
above the liquid in the transformer tank. Generally, the
pressure range for this type of transformer is −8 to +8
lbf/in2.
Transformers also use two different types of cores
namely air core and the iron/steel core
a. Air Core: Some small transformers for low-power
applications are constructed with air between the two
coils as illustrated in the figure below.
Figure 1.18: Sealed tank transformer
Figure 1.19: Three-phase core construction
d. Gas-oil sealed: These transformers have an auxiliary
b. Shell type: In shell-type construction, the magnetic
tank to completely seal the interior tank, containing
core surrounds the windings, as shown in Figure 2.12.
transformer liquid, from the atmosphere.
The primary and secondary windings may be
interspaced side by side or circularly stacked one above Figure 1.21: Coil wound on an air core
e. Vaporization: This type of transformer uses a special
the other. Some large power transformers have this
nonflammable insulating fluid, such as fluorocarbon
form of construction. One advantage of the shell type is Such transformers are inefficient because the
(General Electric R-113), which is nonflammable, and a
that it offers a separate path for the zero-sequence percentage of the flux from the first coil that links the
special condenser assembly welded on top of the
currents through the core, as compared to the core type second coil is small. This inefficiency of the flux is due
transformer tank. The cooling tube ends are swaged and
in which the zero-sequence path exists only through the to the term called permeability (µ). Permeability is the
welded to tube headers. This transformer uses the
transformer tank and end connections. ability of a material to carry magnetic flux. Air has a
technique of sprayed liquid on core and coil assembly
very low permeability, as shown in eq. 1, therefore it
purpose of the condenser is to cool the boiling vapor can also carry a small amount of flux.
into liquid for continued circulation of the fluid. 𝐻
µ𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 (𝑒𝑞. 1)𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑚
µ𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.0 (𝑒𝑞. 2) 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐺𝑆 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
B. Core Construction
Transformers employ basically two types of core
b. Iron or Steel Core: The ability of iron or steel to carry
construction techniques.
magnetic flux is much greater than air as shown in
figure 2.14. Modern electrical steels have permeability’s
a. Core type: In core-type construction, the transformer
in the order of 1500 compared with 1.0 for air. This
winding surrounds the laminated core. The coils can be
Figure 1.20a: Three-phase shell type construction means that the ability of a steel core to carry magnetic
cylindrical, flat, or disk shaped. They can be arranged to
flux is 1500 times that of air. Steel cores were used in
fit around the rectangle or square cross section of the
power transformers when alternating current circuits
core, as shown in figure 2.11. Core-type construction
for distribution of electrical energy were first
provides a single-path magnetic circuit through the
introduced. When two coils are applied on a steel core,
magnetic core. Most small distribution transformers are
almost 100% of the flux from coil 1 circulates in the iron
of this construction.
core so that the voltage induced into coil 2 is equal to
the coil 1 voltage if the number of turns in the two coils
are equal.
TRANSFORMERS
The rectifier transformer is also a special purpose
transformer used in the rectification of AC to direct
current (DC) applications in the process industry. These
transformers are specially braced to withstand
mechanical stresses produced by high currents.
E. Power Transformer
The power transformer has a rating in excess of 500 kVA
and is primarily used in transforming energy from
generating stations to transmission lines, from
transmission lines to distribution substations, or from
Figure 1.22: Coil wound on an iron core utility service lines to plant distribution substations.
sum of the high-voltage and low-voltage windings.
Additive polarity is shown in Figure 2.16. In general,
polarity is not indicative of a higher or lower
arrangement of potential stresses within a transformer
or arrangement of windings. Both subtractive and
additive polarities are found in transformers. Additive
(a) polarity is more prevalent in distribution-type
transformers and subtractive polarity in power
transformers.

1.2.3 APPLICATION AND USE 1.3 TRANSFORMER POLARITY,

Transformers used for converting energy can be
TERMINAL MARKINGS, AND (a)
classified into five categories according to their
application and use. CONNECTIONS

A. Distribution Transformers 1.3.1 Single-Phase Transformers

A distribution transformer has a rating from 3 to 500
kVA. There are various types of distribution
transformers, depending upon the cooling and
insulating medium, service application, and mounting
method. Transformers with voltage ratings of as high as
34,500 V are available. Virtually all distribution
transformers are self-cooled.
B. Network Transformer
This is considered a distribution transformer per
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
standards and has characteristics similar to the
distribution transformer. However, its application is
different. It has special and severe requirements for
network service, such as ventilation, vault size,
submersibility, and short-circuit requirements.
Network transformers can have kVA ratings in excess of
500 kVA and primary voltage up to 23 kV.
C. Arc-Furnace Transformer
The arc-furnace transformer is a special purpose
transformer used in process industries. It is a low-
voltage and high-amperage transformer and is specially
braced to withstand mechanical stresses caused by
fluctuating current requirements. Due to distorted
waveform because of arcs, it has extra winding
insulation.
D. Rectifier Transformer
Primary and secondary terminals of a single-phase
transformer have the same polarity when the current
enters the primary terminal and at the same time leaves
the secondary terminal. Transformers are constructed (b)
with subtractive and additive polarities.
A. Subtractive Polarity
When the high-side lead, H1 and low-side lead, X1, are
brought out on the same side of the transformer, the
polarity is said to be subtractive, as shown in Figure (b)
2.15a. If leads H1 and X1 are connected and the high side
is energized with a given voltage, the resulting voltage,
which appears across the H2 and X2 leads, will be less
than the applied voltage (see Figure 2.15b). This is due
to the fact that in this series connection the low-voltage
(c)
winding opposes the high-voltage (HV) winding, and
Figure 2.15:
thus the low voltage is subtracted from the HV (see
(a) Subtractive polarity of single-phase
Figure 2.15c).
transformer
(b) Connection for polarity test
(c) Resultant voltage across H1 and X1 (c)
Figure 2.16:
B. Additive Polarity (a) Additive polarity of single-phase transformer
When the high-side lead, H1, and low-side lead, X2, are (b) Connection for polarity test
brought out on the same side of the transformer, the (c) Resultant voltage across H1 and X2
polarity is said to be additive. If the leads H1 and X2 are
connected and a given voltage is applied to the high side, The connections of single-phase distribution
the resultant voltage across the H2 and X1 leads is the transformers usually have their windings divided into
TRANSFORMERS
two or more sections. When the two secondary the electrical angular shift between terminals. The basic
windings are connected in parallel, their currents add, three-phase transformer configurations are as follows: Voltage ratings: The voltage rating provides the
and if the two windings are connected in series, their primary and secondary voltage to transform electrical
voltages add. The connection output is the same in both Delta–delta energy from primary voltage to secondary voltage. This
cases: for example, for series connection each Wye–wye (star–star) rating is associated with the winding turns ratios of the
secondary winding rated at Delta–wye (star) primary and secondary windings. Some examples of
115 V and 100 A, therefore the output is equal to 230 × Wye (star)–delta standard voltage ratings for power transformers are
100 = 23,000 VA or 23 kVA; shown in Table 1.
and for parallel connection it is equal to 115 × 200 = These connections are shown in Figure 2.18. The
23,000 VA or 23 kVA. These standard angular displacement between reference Table 2.3: Three-Phase Transformer Standard Voltage
connections are shown in Figure 2.17. phases of a delta–delta bank or a star–star bank is 0°. Ratings
The standard angular displacement between reference Secondary Substation
phases of a star–delta or a delta–star bank is 30°. High-Side
Low-Side Voltage
Voltage
The lead marking of three-phase transformers has been 15 kV class 600V class
insulation insulation
standardized and is as follows: The HV lead H1 is
13,800 600
brought out on the right side when facing the HV side of 13,200 480
the transformer case. The remaining HV side leads H2 12,000 480Y/277
and H3 are brought out and numbered in sequence from 7,200 240
(a)
right to left. The low-voltage side lead, X1 is brought out 6,900 208Y/120
on the left side facing the low side of the transformer 5kV class
case. The remaining low-voltage side leads, X2 and X3, insulation
4,800
are numbered in sequence from left to right. This is
4,160
shown in Figure 2.19. 2,400

The four basic three-phase transformer configurations Primary Substation

can be accomplished by connecting three single-phase Figure 2.18: Three-phase connection and angular
High-Side
displacement Low-Side Voltage
transformers or by connecting three-phase windings Voltage
within one tank. All the configurations provide 69 kV class 15 kV class 5 kV class
symmetrical connections. The relationship between insulation insulation insulation
67,000 14,400 4,800
each phase for high and low-side voltage is 120°, as
13,800 4,360
shown in the vector diagrams of Figure 2.18. 46 kV class 13,200 4,160
(b)
insulation 13,090 2,520
43,800 12,600 2,400
12,470
34.5 kV class 12,000
insulation 8,720
34,400 8,320
Figure 2.17: 26,400 7,560
(a) Single Phase Transformer Series Connection Figure 2.19: Three-phase transformer terminal marking 7,200
(b) Single Phase Transformer Parallel 25 kV insulation 6,900
Connection 22,900 5,040
1.4 TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS
Transformers used for the distribution of power in
1.3.2 Three-Phase Transformers Cooling: The type of cooling determines the method of
plants and buildings have similar characteristics, which
The polarity of three-phase transformers is fixed by the medium used to dissipate heat generated in the
have been standardized as follows:
connections between phases, as well as by the relative transformer. Transformer kVA rating is specified based
locations of leads, and can be designated by a sketch upon the temperature rise allowed for a given
kVA rating: The rating must be adequate to carry the
showing lead markings and a vector diagram showing transformer.
connected load.
TRANSFORMERS
Insulation class: The insulation class of a transformer
is based upon the nominal voltage levels at which the
system voltages and currents are transformed. The
primary and secondary voltage ratings are listed in
table 1 for the various insulation-class levels.
Impedance level: The impedance of a transformer can
be expressed as an impedance drop expressed in
percent. This is equal to impedance drop voltage
expressed as a percentage of rated terminal voltage. For
most power transformers, the impedance can be
considered equal to the reactance since the resistance
component is very small. The National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) has standardized
the impedance values for transformers that are built in
accordance with NEMA standards, which are shown in
Table 2.
Table 2.4: NEMA Standard Impedance Values for
Transformers
Transformers 500 kVA and above
HV Ratings Low Voltage Low Voltage
Rated at 2400V or Rated at 480 or
Higher (%) 208 V (%)
2.4 – 22.9 5.5 5.75
Up to 34.4 6.0 6.25
Up to 69 7.0 6.75
Transformers below 500 kVA
112.5 through 225 kVA: not less than 2%
300 through 500 kVA: not less than 4.5%
Short-circuit conditions: The short-circuit withstand
capability of a transformer is the ability to withstand
without injury short circuits on any external terminals,
with rated line voltages maintained on all terminals
intended for connection to sources of power.
The duration and values of short circuit are limited by
American National Standard Institute (ANSI) as follows:
Voltage taps: Many power transformers for industrial
applications are equipped with voltage ratio tap
changers. The tap changer is used to maintain a constant
secondary voltage with variable primary voltage or to
control the secondary voltage with a fixed primary
voltage. Usually, most transformers will have two 5%
taps or four 2.5% taps on the HV side for adjustment to
maintain constant secondary voltage.
Sound level: All transformers hum and create noise
when they are energized. This noise is generated by
vibrations in the laminated core, and the noise
frequency is double the fundamental frequency. The
noise level of transformers should be considered during
installation in order not to exceed Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations. Typical
ratings for distribution transformers are listed as
follows:
Basic impulse insulation level (BIL): BIL is the crest
value of the impulse voltage that the transformer is
required to withstand without failure. The transformer
BIL impulse duration is 1.2 × 50 μs. That is, the impulse
reaches its peak value in 1.2 μs and then decays to 50%
of its peak value in 50 μs. In addition to full BIL value,
transformers are tested for chopped-wave withstand
(115% of BIL) and front-of-the-wave withstand (160%
of BIL). These tests are intended to simulate conditions
that can occur when transformers are subjected to
lightning surges.