Megohmmeters, sometimes referred to as insulation testers or, informally, as

meggers, are electrical meters used to determine the condition of the

insulation on wire and motor windings. Megohmmeters introduce a high
voltage, low current DC (direct current) charge and measure the resistance to
determine current leakage and identify faulty or damaged insulation which can
lead to arc faults, blown circuits, and risk of electrical shock and/or fire.
Routinely using a megohmmeter to check insulation in both new installations
and as part of a maintenance program is a prudent way to ensure your circuits
are safe.

The insulation found on wires, cable, and motor windings serve to protect the
wire and keep it separate from other wires. Accidental touching of two
conducting wires can result in an arc fault. Insulation, however, begins to
degrade from the moment it’s made and as it ages, there is a reduction in its
insulating performance. Exposure to extreme environmental conditions and/or
chemical contamination, accelerates this process. Megohmmeters provide a
way to quickly and easily test to identify the deterioration of insulation before it
results in conditions that can damage expensive equipment, lead to an
unplanned shutdown, or threaten personal safety.

How Megohmmeters Work

Megohmmeters are simply large capacity ohmmeters capable of creating a

DC voltage from an internal battery. The level of resistance required to test
insulation and motor windings is far higher than normally found on multimeters
or standard ohmmeters. Depending upon the standards referenced,
acceptable insulator resistance values are typically between 1 and 10
megohms (millions of ohms).

Megohmmeters must be able to generate voltages ranging from 50 to 15,000

volts to accurately measure such high resistances. A small internal generator,
either hand-cranked or with an internal motor, is used to produce that voltage.
The voltage is supplied at a very low current so as not to damage sensitive
equipment or be dangerous to the tester.

When testing with a megohmmeter, low resistance values indicate current

leakage which is indicative of compromised insulation.

Though valuable tools, megohmmeters also have limitations. When using

megohmmeters it is important to remember the following:

 The high voltages produced by these instruments should be kept in

mind at all times when testing electrical equipment.
 Megohmeter test voltages should not exceed the operating voltage of
the equipment being tested by too large a margin as this may cause
irreversible damage.
 While they identify problems with insulation, megohmmeters do not
pinpoint the location of the current leak.
 Never use an insulation tester if the motor windings are under a
vacuum.

Using a megohmmeter

Testing insulation resistance provides a numerical value to represent the

condition of conductor insulation and the internal insulation of electrical
equipment. But how do we arrive at that value and what does that number
mean?

During testing, the high DC voltage generated by the megohmmeter will cause
a small current to flow through the conductor and insulation. The amount of
current depends on the amount of voltage applied, the system’s capacitance,
the total resistance, and the temperature of the material. In general, the higher
the current, the lower the resistance. The value of insulation resistance
displayed on the meter is a function of following three independent sub-
currents.

1. Conductive leakage current:Conductive current is a small amount of

current that normally flows through insulation, between conductors or from a
conductor to ground. This current increases as insulation deteriorates and
becomes predominant after the absorption current vanishes. Because it is
fairly steady and time independent, this is the most important current for
measuring insulation resistance.

2. Capacitive charging leakage current: When two or more conductors run

parallel to each other, they act as a capacitor. Because of this capacitive
effect, a leakage current flows through conductor insulation. This current lasts
only for a few seconds as the DC voltage is applied and drops out after the
insulation has been charged to its full test voltage. In low-capacitance
equipment, the capacitive current is higher than conductive leakage current,
but it dissipates very quickly. With high capacitance equipment the capacitive
charging leakage current can last for a very long time. For this reason, it’s
important to let the reading settle out before recording it.

3. Polarization absorption leakage current: Absorption current is caused by

the polarization of molecules within dielectric material. In low-capacitance
equipment, the current is high for the first few seconds and decreases slowly
to nearly zero. When dealing with high capacitance equipment or wet and
contaminated insulation, there will be no decrease in the absorption current
for a long time

Megohmmeter Tests

Megohmmeters are routinely used for testing both following installation as well
as part of a predictive maintenance program. Proof tests are conducted for
new installations to ensure proper installation and integrity of conductors. This
is a quick and simple test, often called a “go/no go test” since it tests cable
systems for maintenance errors, incorrect installation, serious degradation, or
contamination. The installation passes the test if no breakdown occurs.

Proof tests involve applying a single voltage, generally 500 to 5000 volts, for
about one minute. The idea is to stress the insulation above normal working
voltages in order to detect subtle weaknesses in the insulation. This is usually
about 60 to 80% of the manufacturer’s factory test voltage. Proof tests can be
performed on equipment of any capacitance.

Predictive maintenance tests are performed on existing equipment and

provide important information about the present and future state of
conductors, generators, transformers, and motors. As with any predictive
maintenance regime, comparing results gathered over time will help with
scheduling diagnostic and repair work, which will reduce downtime from
unexpected failures.

The following are the most commonly applied predictive maintenance tests
performed with a megohmmeter:

Insulation Resistance (IR) Test

The Insulation Resistance test is the simplest test conducted with a
megohmmeter. It is a short-duration test in which a test voltage is applied for
about one minute. The amount of voltage applied is calculated from DC test
voltage formulas.

When interpreting test results, equipment rated at or below 1000 volts should
have a reading of 1 MΩ or greater. For equipment rated above 1000 volts, the
expected resistance should increase to one megohm per 1000 volts applied.
Please consult the manufacturer of equipment for acceptable values and test
procedures.

When compared to past test results, it is expected that insulation resistance

will be a bit lower than previously recorded values. This is a normal sign of
insulation aging. Sharper lower values would indicate an insulation failure or a
warning of troubles ahead. Any values below standard minimums or sudden
departures from previous values should be investigated.

It is important to note that the Insulation Resistance test is temperature

sensitive. When the temperature goes up, IR goes down, and vice versa. To
compare new readings with previous readings, they must be corrected to a
base temperature, usually, 20°C or 40°C. Tables are available for temperature
correction. A common rule of thumb is that IR changes by a factor of two for
each 10°C change.

Step Voltage Test

The step voltage test involves resistance testing at various voltage settings.
Test voltage is applied for a length of time, around a minute, in increasing
steps and the test value is recorded. If the insulation is in good shape the
resistance value should remain approximately constant as the voltage is
increased. If the insulation is degraded and pinholes, cracks or other physical
damage or contamination, it will experience increased current flow, especially
at higher voltages. This will exhibit itself in decreasing insulation resistance. If
testing finds a significant drop in resistance values, say above 25%, age
deterioration or damaged insulation should be suspected.

Step voltage tests are independent of insulation material, equipment

capacitance, and temperature effect. The test is ideal to pinpoint problems
that have been identified by an insulation resistance test.

Dielectric-Absorption / Time-Resistance Test

The dielectric-absorption test, also called the time-resistance test, compares
the absorption characteristics of good insulation with those of contaminated
insulation. The test consists of applying test voltage over a ten minute period
and recoding results at frequent intervals. When the results are plotted onto a
graph they can be interpreted to determine the condition of the insulation. A
continuous increase in graphed resistance indicates good insulation. A flat or
downward curve indicates cracked or contaminated insulation.

Dead circuit testing methods

Dead circuit testing is testing performed with the power disconnected from the
circuit. The main benefit of disconnecting power supply while tests with an
external energy source are performed is to eliminate hazardous risks to the
environment or the person conducting the test.
Troubleshooting dead circuit by testing continuity with disconnected supply
(photo credit: visionsensorsmag.com)

Both continuity test and insulation test can be performed in the dead circuit
test. Let’s try to describe them in details:

1. Continuity test
2. Insulation test

1. Continuity test

This is to be performed on a dead circuit for checking continuity. Using

an Audible Continuity Tester can do it. This tester consists of a battery as a
source of energy, an audible device, and two test leads.

Figure 1 shows an example of this test with an audible continuity tester.

 Figure 1 – Continuity test
with audio tester

By this test, the continuity of an electrical circuit is checked to ensure that the
electrical path is complete. If the path is continuous, then an audio sound is
emitted to confirm path continuity and the non-existence of an open circuit. In
some devices, along with the audio indication, an LED or some other visual
indication is provided.

Similarly, an ohmmeter or multimeter can also be used to check continuity. An

ohmmeter or multimeter consists of a battery as a source of energy, along with
a meter to display the value of resistance. Figure 2 shows an example of this
test with an ohmmeter.

In an ohmmeter, the scale is calibrated from zero to an infinite range of

resistance. When the meter shows a zero reading, it indicates that the path
between two test leads has zero resistance. This, in turn, indicates that the path
is a continuous one.
If the path or the conductor is open, then it will show resistance value as
infinite.

Figure 2 – Continuity test

with ohmmeter

In short, continuity testing is used to check the following purposes:

Integrity of cables

 Integrity of electrical circuit path

 Integrity of the earthing system (i.e., electrical continuity and low-
resistance value to earth)
 Accurate wiring of a control and power circuit to the correct terminals
 Differentiate active and neutral conductors before connecting them to a
device
 Check for wrong wiring interconnections between different control and
power circuits. Thus indirectly, checking for short circuit paths
 Integrity of switches, fuses, and other devices
A few words of caution are warranted here. Checking for continuity in a control
circuit can give erratic results due to the existence of parallel circuits. It is
better to disconnect appropriate terminals to ensure correct results. Continuity
test in power circuits can be tricky!!

Often, a circuit where there is an open circuit fault can register excellent
continuity with a low power tester or ohmmeter. But when a voltage is applied,
current may not flow.

The reason for this is that the circuit may be partially continuous (Example: a
partially burnt cable where one or two conductor strands may be making
contact) but when feeding a heavy load it will behave as a high impedance.

This type of fault will be detected by testing on load using voltage

measurements.

Go back to dead circuit testing continuity methods ↑

2. Insulation test

This is another test performed on a dead circuit only. The objective is to check
for insulation of cables or a power circuit. The device used to check integrity
of insulation is known as an Insulation Resistance Tester. Generally, this is
used during the installation of high voltage power cables and terminations.

In Figure 3, a general motor circuit is shown with breaker, fuses, and overload
relay. To check insulation of the circuit (excluding motor), disconnect the
power supply by opening the breaker.
 Figure 3 –
Insulation test with insulation resistance tester

Then, isolate the motor from the circuit through terminals T1, T2, and T3. First
checking insulation resistance between earth and T1, then earth and T2, and
finally earth and T3 checks insulation resistances of conductors, as well as
other devices.

If the insulation resistance of any branch shows zero or a very low reading,
then it can be concluded that there is an insulation failure!
This test is also used in fault finding, to check for earthed motors or cables and
for checking insulation failure of conductors. Individual phases of three-phase
motor winding can be insulation-tested only if all six leads of the winding are
brought out. The winding being tested should be connected to the tester’s
output with the other two windings connected together and to the earthed frame
of the motor.

Where only three leads are available, the insulation of the machine winding as a
whole can only be tested with reference to the earthed frame of the motor.

These insulation testers are also often incorrectly called ‘Meggers’ (by manfacturer

MEGGER) and have a built-in energy source (either DC generator or battery) to produce test

voltages of rating 500 V DC or more.

This is required since the electrical circuit to be tested applies voltage of

different ratings.

Poor grounding contributes to downtime but a lack of good grounding is also dangerous and increases
the risk of equipment failure.

Over time, corrosive soils with high moisture and salt content and high temperatures can degrade ground rods
and their connections. So, although the ground system had low earth ground resistance values when initially
installed, the resistance of the grounding system can increase if the ground rods are corroded.

Grounding testers are indispensable troubleshooting tools to help you maintain uptime. It is recommended that
all grounds and ground connections be checked at least annually as a part of your normal predictive
maintenance plan. Should an increase in resistance of more than 20% be measured during these periodic
checks, the technician should investigate the source of the problem and make the correction to lower the
resistance by replacing or adding ground rods to the ground system.

What is a ground?

The US National Electrical Code (NEC) Article 100 defines a ground as: “a conducting connection, whether
intentional or accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment and the earth, or to some conducting body
that serves in place of the earth”.

Grounding actually encompasses two different subjects: earth grounding and equipment grounding. Earth
grounding is an intentional connection from a circuit conductor, usually the neutral, to a ground electrode
placed in the earth. Equipment grounding ensures that operating equipment within a structure is grounded
properly.

These two grounding systems must be kept separate except for connections between the two systems. This
prevents differences in voltage potential from a possible flashover from lightning strikes. The purpose of a
ground is to provide a safe path for the dissipation of fault currents, lightning strikes, static discharges, EMI and
RFI signals and interference.
The US National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
recommend a ground resistance value of 5 or less. The goal in ground resistance is to achieve the lowest
ground resistance value possible that makes sense economically and physically.

What affects the grounding resistance?

Four variables affect the ground resistance of a ground system: length or depth of the ground electrode; the
diameter of the ground electrode; the number of ground electrodes and ground system design.

Length/depth of the ground electrode

Driving ground electrodes deeper is a very effective way to lower ground resistance. Soil is not consistent in its
resistivity and can be unpredictable. The resistance level can generally be reduced by an additional 40% by
doubling the length of the ground electrode. It is sometimes impossible to drive ground rods deeper – in areas
composed of rock, for instance. In these cases, alternative methods including grounding cement are viable.

Diameter of the ground electrode

Increasing the diameter of the ground electrode has very little effect in lowering the resistance. For example,
you could double the diameter of a ground electrode and your resistance would only decrease by 10%.

Number of ground electrodes

Using multiple ground electrodes provides another way to lower ground resistance. More than one electrode is
driven into the ground and connected in parallel to lower the resistance. For additional electrodes to be
effective, the spacing of additional rods must be at least equal to the depth of the driven rod.

The ground electrodes’ spheres of influence will intersect and the resistance will not be lowered without proper
spacing. Table 1 provides various ground resistances which can be used as a rule of thumb.

Table 1: Ground resistances for use as a rule of thumb.

Earthing resistance
Soil
resistivity
RE
Type of soil Ground electrode depth (metre) Earthing strip (metre)

ΩM 3 6 10 5 10 20

Very moist soil,

30 10 5 3 12 6 3
swamplike

Farming soil loamy

100 33 17 10 40 20 10
and clay soils
Sandy clay soil 150 50 25 15 60 30 15

Moist sandy soil 300 66 33 20 80 40 20

Concrete 1:5 400 – – – 160 80 40

Moist gravel 500 160 80 48 200 100 50

Dry sandy soil 1000 330 165 100 400 200 100

Dry gravel 1000 330 165 100 400 200 100

Stoney soil 30 000 1000 500 300 1200 600 300

Rock 107 – – – – – –

Ground system design

Simple grounding systems consist of a single ground electrode driven into the ground. The use of a single
ground electrode is the most common form of grounding. Complex grounding systems consist of multiple
ground rods, connected, mesh or grid networks, ground plates, and ground loops.

These systems are typically installed at power generating substations, central offices, and cellphone tower
sites. Complex networks dramatically increase the amount of contact with the surrounding earth and lower
ground resistances.

Ac loop impedance testing

Alternating current (ac) loop impedance testing, a testing procedure long-established in Europe,
is only recently beginning to find its way into U.S. practice. Best known as "loop testing," it
addresses the rapidly expanding development and deployment of increasingly sophisticated
electronic equipment, which places greater demands on instrumentation and testing
capabilities.Loop testing is a quick,

Jeff Jowett, AVO International | Jan 01, 1999

Alternating current (ac) loop impedance testing, a testing procedure long-established in
Europe, is only recently beginning to find its way into U.S. practice. Best known as "loop
testing," it addresses the rapidly expanding development and deployment of
increasingly sophisticated electronic equipment, which places greater demands on
instrumentation and testing capabilities.

Loop testing is a quick, convenient, and highly specific method of evaluating an

electrical circuit for its ability to engage protective devices (circuit breakers, fuses,
GFCIs). It has been mandated in Europe but overlooked in the United States because it
isn't required.

A "loop" is not the same as a circuit. A circuit conforms to a design, whereas a loop may
define itself by including unsuspected elements where current has found parallel paths
to ground. Because a ground loop determines the effectiveness of protective devices, it is
crucial to be able to measure it, in order to detect and correct problems.

Picture a ground-fault loop as follows: A fault occurs, current travels through the
grounding conductor back to the service, then down the ground connector to the ground
rod or grid, and into the soil. Parallel paths then exist through the soil and the grounded
neutral conductor back to the supply transformer; the transformer winding and phase
conductor back to the point of the fault complete the loop (Fig. 1). In order for protective
devices to function properly, this loop must be of sufficiently low impedance to allow
enough current to flow to activate the devices. High impedance can render protective
devices useless by reducing current flow to less than is required to activate the fuse or
breaker. The faulty circuit will remain energized, resulting in damage, fire, and even
fatal shocks.

Various codes have set requirements without specifically mandating a test procedure.
The National Electric Code, Section 250-51, requires the ground path to be sufficient to
facilitate the operation of protective devices. This is most commonly implemented by
use of calculations, such as point-to-point or unit methods.

Calculations are time-consuming, rare-ly performed by non-engineers, and can be done

incorrectly. It becomes simpler to take shortcuts by merely assigning a circuit design
that has worked in the past. Even when faithfully employed, calculations are subject to
inherent errors. It is difficult to consider the entire circuit length, including branch and
feeder, to the transformer. And two return paths exist in parallel between the facility
and the transformer: utility neutral and earth return from the ground electrode at the
service entrance. Accurate calculation of these parallel paths is difficult, and typically
not done.

Yet these paths may contribute significantly to the total current in an actual fault
condition. Even conductors sized according to NEC Table 250-95, while affording basic
protection, can develop excessive impedance in a long circuit-and not accommodate
protective devices.

The ready solution for avoiding these potential errors is to perform an impedance test.
New technology permits the reading of total impedance in a given circuit exactly. U.S.
Electrical workers are already familiar with the correlative concept of voltage drop. NEC
Section 210-19 recommends no more than a 5% voltage drop due to impedance on a
given circuit. Unsuspected parallel grounds, in addition to increasing fault currents, can
reduce voltage drop on the circuit and mask high impedance. Various methods, both
specific and jury-rigged, are used to determine voltage drop. But loop testers are the
most accurate means of measuring impedance because they include actual circuit
conditions, taking into account temperature and lost currents traveling in parallel paths.

A loop impedance tester is a marked advancement over more time-consuming and

error-prone methods. In a few seconds, it gives an accurate measurement that assesses
all factors that contribute to actual performance of protective devices in a fault
condition. It does this by simulating a fault from "hot" to ground (ground fault) or from
hot to neutral (short circuit). The tester first measures the unloaded voltage, then
connects a known resistance between the conductors, thereby simulating a fault. The
voltage drop is measured across the known resistor, in series with the loop, and the
proportion of the supply voltage that appears across the resistor will be dependent on
the impedance of the loop (Fig. 2). Speed is the key to a successful measurement. The
tester completes the measurement in two half-cycles of the main supply (16 milliseconds
at 60 Hz), in which protective devices do not have time to react.

An indispensable corollary measurement also performed by a loop tester is that of

Prospective Short Circuit Current (PSCC). This is the maximum short circuit current
that could flow in event of a fault. It is necessary information for the correct sizing of
protective devices, according to NEC Sections 110-9 and 110-10, so that they are not
dangerously sacrificed when called on line. The maximum point of test for PSCC is at the
service entrance, while impedance is best tested at the farthest point from the incoming
supply. A quick table reference indicates if impedance is sufficiently low (see Table 1),
and sizes the breaker (see Table 2).

Loop impedance testing reduces a complex process, fraught with uncertainty, to a

reliable task completed in minutes.