University of Guyana

Industrial Engineering

Electrical Systems and Measurements –EMD 1306

Final Exam Mark Scheme (2018/2019)

Question #1

(i) Primary sources can be used directly, as they appear in the natural

environment: coal, oil, natural gas and wood, nuclear fuels (uranium), the
sun, the wind, tides, mountain lakes, the rivers (from which hydroelectric
energy can be obtained) and the Earth heat that supplies geothermal energy.
(1 Mark)

Secondary sources are derived from the transformation of primary energy

sources: for example petrol, that derives from the treatment of crude oil and
electric energy, obtained from the conversion of mechanical energy
(hydroelectric plants, Aeolian plants), chemical plants (thermoelectric), or
nuclear (nuclear plants). Electric energy is produced by electric plants, i.e.
suitable installations that can transform primary energy (non-transformed)
into electric energy.
(1 Mark)

(ii) Some sources are renewable, i.e. they provide energy, which is constantly
regenerated by means of chemical transformations (e.g. biomass) or
physical transformations (e.g. water power, solar, wind power, etc.).
In particular the sun, the wind, the water cycle, the tides, Biogas, Tidal
Energy, Wind Energy, Geothermal Energy, Hydro Electricity, Solar Energy

(0.5 each/any 4)
Question #2(a)

(i) An electric power system is a network of electrical components deployed to supply, transfer,
and use electric power.
(2
Marks)
(ii)

(4 Marks for either)

(iii)
 PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.
 The primary distribution system is that portion of the power network between the
distribution substation and the utilization transformers. The primary distribution system
consists of circuits, referred to as primary or distribution feeders, that originate at the
secondary bus of the distribution substation. The distribution substation is usually the
delivery point of electric power in large industrial or commercial applications.
 Primary distribution system voltages range from 2,400 V to 69,000 V.
(2 Marks)

 SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS.

 The secondary distribution system is that portion of the network between the primary
feeders and utilization equipment. The secondary system consists of step-down
 transformers and secondary circuits at utilization voltage levels. Residential secondary
systems are predominantly single-phase, but commercial and industrial systems generally
use three-phase power.
 Secondary Voltage Levels. The voltage levels for a particular secondary system are
determined by the loads to be served. The utilization voltages are generally in the range
of 120 to 600 V.
(2 Marks)

Question #2(b)

(i)
 Expanded-Radial Distribution System
 Secondary Selective – Radial System
(1 mark each)
(ii)

Simple Radial Distribution System Primary Selective Distribution System.

(2 Marks each)
(iii)
 In the simple-radial system, distribution is at the utilization voltage. A single primary
service and distribution transformer supply all the feeders. There is no duplication of
equipment. System investment is the lowest of all circuit arrangements. Operation and
expansion are simple. Reliability is high if quality components are used, however, loss of
a cable, primary supply, or transformer will cut off service. Further, electrical service is
interrupted when any piece of service equipment must be de-energized to perform routine
maintenance and servicing.
  Primary Selective Distribution System. Protection against loss of a primary supply can be gained
through use of a primary selective system. Each unit substation is connected to two separate
primary feeders through switching equipment to provide a normal and an alternate source. When
the normal source feeder is out of service for maintenance or a fault, the distribution transformer
is switched, either manually or automatically, to the alternate source. An interruption will occur
until the load is transferred to the alternate source. Cost is somewhat higher than for a radial
system because primary cable and switchgear are duplicated.

(2 marks for either)

Question #3 a

(i)
 Shunt Conductance
 Shunt Capacitance
 Series/Line Resistance
 Series inductance (1/2 each)

(ii)

(i) Line inductance – The current flow in the transmission line induces the magnetic flux.When the
current in the transmission line changes, the magnetic flux also varies due to which emf induces
in the circuit. The magnitude of inducing emf depends on the rate of change of flux. Emf
produces in the transmission line resist the flow of current in the conductor, and this parameter is
known as the inductance of the line. (2 each)

(ii) Line capacitance – In the transmission lines, air acts as a dielectric medium. The capacitance of
a transmission line is the result of the potential differences between the conductors themselves as
well as potential differences between the conductors and ground.
Capacitance is negligible in short transmission lines whereas in long transmission; it is the most
important parameter. It affects the efficiency, voltage regulation, power factor and stability of the
system. (2 each)

(iii) Shunt conductance – Air act as a dielectric medium between the conductors. When the
alternating voltage applies in a conductor, some current flow in the dielectric medium because of
dielectric imperfections. Such current is called leakage current. Leakage current depends on the
atmospheric condition and pollution like moisture and surface deposits. Shunt conductance is
defined as the flow of leakage current between the conductors. It is distributed uniformly along
the whole length of the line. (2 each)
Question #3 b

(i) Corona effect occurs when the surface potential gradient of a conductor exceeds the dielectric
strength of the surrounding air (30 kV=cm during fair weather), producing ionization in the area
close to the conductor, with consequent corona losses, audible noise, and radio interference.

(2 each)
(ii)

 The glow appears across the conductor which shows that power loss occurs on it.
 The audio noise occurs because of the corona effect which causes the power loss on the
conductor.
 The vibration of conductor occurs because of corona effect.
 The corona power loss reduces the efficiency of the line.

 The radio and TV interference occurs on the line because of corona effect.

(1 each/any 4)

(iii)
 Effect of supply voltage
 The condition of conductor surface
 Air Density Factor
 Effect of system voltage 
 The spacing between conductors 

(1 each/any 4)

 Increasing conductor diameters is very effective. Diameters of conductors can be

increased by using hollow conductors and by using steel-cored aluminum conductors
(ACSR) conductors.
 The voltage of the line – Voltage of transmission lines is fixed by economic
considerations. To increase the disruptive voltage the spacing of the conductors is to be
increased, but this method has some limitations.
 Spacing between conductors – If the space between conductors increases, then the
voltage drops between them also increases due to increase in inductive reactance.
(1 each/any 2)
Question #5 a

Function:- A relay is a electromagnetic switch. It is used to control a load circuit that requires a
large current by the application of a smaller current in a control circuit.

[2 Mark]

Operations and Diagram: - When the switch in the control circuit is closed a current flows and a
magnetic field is generated in the electromagnet. This attracts the movable armature, closing the
switch point contact, allowing a current to flow in the load circuit.

[4 Mark]
Question #5 b

The oilless class includes:

 air
 magnetic-blast
 compressed-air
 gas-filled
 vacuum circuit breakers.
 [1 Mark each for any two]

 In the air type, the arc is extinguished, or interrupted, in substantially static air in which the arc
moves into arcing chutes containing metal or insulating fins. The metal fins break the arc into
many short segments while the insulating fins stretch the arc. Both methods are effective in
extinguishing the arc. A circuit breaker arc chute interruption is shown in Figure 3-12.
 (b) The magnetic-blast type differs from the air type in that it uses a magnetic field to blow the
arc into the arc chute which elongates and cools the arc.
 (c) In the compressed-air and gas-filled types, high-pressure air or gas is forced through the
arcing path to elongate the arc and increase the resistance to the fault current.
 (d) In a vacuum circuit breaker the arc is drawn in a vacuum. The high dielectric strength and the
rapid recovery rate of a vacuum gap makes arc extinguishing extremely fast and clean.
[1 Mark each for any two]

Question #5 b

 Self Generating transducers:-

These transducers develop their own currents and voltages and in the process obtain all
their energy from the measurand.
[1 Mark]
Example: Thermocouple, photovoltaic cell, piezo crystal, antenna etc. any correct
example accepted. [0.5 Mark each for any two]

 Externally powered

These transducers must have power supplied for operation from an external source,
though they may obtain some energy from the measurand.
[1 Mark]
Example: Strain gauge, differential transformers, photocell (LDR) etc. any correct
example accepted.
[0.5 Mark each for any two]

Question #5 c

The basic SCADA architecture begins with programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or remote
terminal units (RTUs). The PLCs and RTUs communicate with an array of objects such as
factory machines, HMIs, sensors, and end devices, and then route the information from those
objects to computers with SCADA software. The signals from the sensors and relays are package
in to digital signal which is then transmitted over a wired or wireless network to the controls
center where is displayed by the SCADA Software. The SCADA software processes, distributes,
and displays the data, helping operators and other employees analyze the information and make
important decisions.
[3 Marks]
The SCADA system performs the following functions:
 Data Acquisitions
 Data Communication
 Information/Data presentation
 Monitoring/Control

Data acquisition: - This begins at the RTU or PLC level where data received from meters;
sensors and other device are compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator
using the HMI can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls.
Data Communication:-The SCADA system uses a combination of wired and wireless
technologies (as shown in the diagram) to communicate between users in the control centers and
devices in the plant or remote locations. It is over this network that the data acquired above is
transmitted.
Information/Data Presentation: - The SCADA system uses the human-machine interface
(HMI) to provide the operators with all of the information gathered from the various sensors. It is
the input-output device through which the human operator controls the process, and which
presents process data to a human operator. It usually presents the information to the operating
personnel graphically which means that the operator can see a schematic representation of the
plant being controlled.
Monitoring/Control: - At the control center, operators can monitor and control entire sites, or
complexes of systems spread out over large areas (anything from an industrial plant to a nation).
Most control actions are performed automatically by rtus or by plcs. Host control functions are
usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory level intervention.
[1 Mark for any two correct function and explanation]