EEE-281

Introduction to Power
Engineering
Fahd Ali Shifa
Lecturer, Office no. G02,
Electrical & Computer Engineering Department,
COMSATS University Islamabad.
fahd.shifa@comsats.edu.pk

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  Boundary between transmission and distribution systems shifts with
increasing load on the power system such that the voltage which was
high 20 years from now is considered low nowadays
 Distribution system is that portion of power system which distributes
power to consumers for local use
 Consists of feeders, laterals, distributors and service mains
Introduction  Single-phase or three-phase laterals are conductors at feeder voltage
which are taken from feeder via fuses (to isolate fault on lateral) to
supply local loads via distribution transformers
 AC power distributed at two levels i.e., 11 kV and 400 V @ 50 Hz in
Pakistan
 11-kV lines, referred to as feeders, constitute primary distribution while
400-V lines, referred to as distributors, constitute secondary distribution

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 Distribution Transformers

Distribution Transformers

Distribution
Transformers

A Typical Distribution System

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Elements of
 Feeder – Wire typically at 11 kV carrying power from substation or local
Distribution generation system to distribution transformers or bulk consumers like large
System industries, private housing societies, etc.
 Generally no tappings are taken from feeder so that feeder current remains
constant (not always the case)
 Main consideration in design of feeder is its current carrying capacity
 Distributor – Originates from distribution transformer typically at 400 Volts
 Tappings taken from distributor at various points to supply loads in various
areas
 Voltage drop along the entire length of distributor is its main design
consideration (should not exceed +6% of rated voltage at consumer terminals)
 Service Mains – Takes power from a distribution point (DP) in the immediate
vicinity of consumer inside consumer premises via a meter

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 1. Nature of Current
1. AC Distribution (universally adopted for power distribution)
2. DC Distribution

Classification 2. Type of Construction

1. Overhead Distribution (5 – 10x cheaper than underground system)
of Distribution 2. Underground Distribution (used when overhead system impractical
or prohibited by local laws)
Systems 3. Scheme of Connection
1. Radial system
2. Ring-main system
3. Interconnected system

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 *

* Maybe a substation feeding power from a different transmission

circuit or maybe a distribution substation converting power from 11 kV
to 400 Volts for local use.

Primary (Fig. 12.2) vs. Secondary (Fig. 12.3) Distribution

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 Attribute Overhead System Underground System Better Solution
Public Safety Low High Underground
Initial Cost Low High Overhead
Flexibility [1] Higher Lower Overhead
Fault Occurrence High Low Underground
Appearance Worse Better Underground
Overhead vs. Fault Location Easy Difficult Overhead
Underground and Repairs
Current Carrying Higher Lower Overhead
System Capacity [2]
Voltage Drop [3] Higher Lower Underground
Useful Life Shorter Longer Underground
Maintenance Cost Higher Lower Underground
Interference with High None Underground
Communication
Circuits

[1] Ease with which new loads can be accommodated.

[2] For conductors of similar cross-section and material.
[3] Lower inductive reactance in underground system compared to overhead system.

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  Feeders radiate from single substation and feed the distributors at
one end only
 Useful when substation is located at center of the load

Radial
Distribution

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  Feeder originates from substation, makes a loop around the region to be served
and then enters back into substation
 Like a feeder being supplied at both ends by same substation
 Improves voltage regulation by decreasing voltage drop
 Each distributor is fed by two feeders e.g. distributor from M is fed by SLM and
SRQPONM (if fault occurs in SLM at F then feeder SRQPONM can supply this
distributor)
Ring-main
System

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  Unlike radial or ring-main systems, the feeders in an interconnected system
are fed from more than one substations or generating stations
 Benefits: Increased reliability and lower reserve capacity requirements

Interconnected
System

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  Good Voltage Regulation (+6% of rated voltage at consumer terminals)
 Low voltage – Motor windings may overheat, lighting may be inadequate,
loss of revenue due to malfunctioning industrial systems
 High voltage – Service life (especially of lighting appliances) proven to
Requirements degrade on supply voltages higher than rated voltages

from a Good  Power Supply Availability – Required quantity should be available on

demand
Distribution  Power demand not in control of power system operators
 Motors or lights may be switched on or off when required
System  Power must be served as per demands of the consumers
 Reliability – Outages should be minimized
 Use interconnected system, reliable automatic control systems, additional
reserve power at generating stations

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  DC distributors can be of the following types/topologies
1. Distributor fed at one end
2. Distributor fed at both ends
a) At equal voltages
b) At unequal voltages
Types of DC 3. Distributor fed at the center
Distributors, 4. Ring-mains distributor (like a distributor fed at both ends at equal voltages)

Their Loading,  DC distributors may be loaded in a variety of ways:

1. Uniformly Distributed Loading Along the Entire Length of Distributor
and Design 2. Concentrated or Bulk Loading
Criteria 3. Both
 Goal: Determination of point of minimum potential along the length of a
distributor
 Design criteria: Minimum voltage at any point on distributor should not be
less than 6% of rated voltage

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  Distributor is connected to supply at one end and load is taken out at various
points, in bulk, along the length of this distributor
 Current in subsequent line sections keeps on decreasing
DC Distributor  Voltage across loads keeps on decreasing at subsequent points

Fed at One  Whole distributor must be disconnected in event of fault in any section (as fault
detection and isolation devices are located at point A)
End With  r1, r2, r3, r4 are the resistances of sections AC, CD, DE, EF resp.

Concentrated  Current in section AC = Current fed from point A = I1+I2+I3+I4

 Current in section CD = I2+I3+I4; Current in section DE = I3+I4
Loading  Current in section EF = I4
 Voltage drop in section AC = r1(I1+I2+I3+I4)
 Voltage drop in section CD = r2(I2+I3+I4); Voltage drop in section DE = r3(I3+I4)
 Voltage drop in section EF = r4I4
 Total voltage drop in the distributor = r1(I1+I2+I3+I4) + r2(I2+I3+I4) + r3(I3+I4) + r4I4

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 Statement: A 2-wire DC distributor cable AB is 2 km long and supplies loads of
100 A, 150 A,200 A and 50 A situated 500 m, 1000 m, 1600 m and 2000 m from
the feeding point A. Each conductor has a resistance of 0.01 Ω per 1000 m.
Calculate the PD at each load point if a PD of 300 V is maintained at point A.
Solution: Resistance per 1000m of each conductor = 0.01, total resistance of
both conductors per 1000m (+ve and –ve) = 0.01x2Ω = 0.02Ω, LAC = 500m, LCD
= 500m, LDE = 600m, LEB = 400m
RAC, RCD = (0.02 x 500/1000)Ω = 0.01Ω, RDE = (0.02 x 600/1000)Ω = 0.012Ω, REB
Example 13.1 = (0.02 x 400/1000)Ω = 0.008Ω
IAC = 500A, ICD = 400A, IDE = 250A, IEB = 50A
VAC = (500x0.01)V = 5V, VCD = (400x0.01)V = 4V, VDE = (250x0.012)V = 3V, VEB =
(50x0.008)V = 0.4V
VC = VA–VAC = (300-5) V = 295 V, VD = VC–VCD = (295-4) V = 291 V, VE = VD–VDE =
(291-3) V = 288 V, VB = VE–VEB = (288-0.4) V = 287.6 V (Solution)

PD = Potential difference

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Example 13.2

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 Solution: Let ‘r’ is the resistance of distributor per 100m
RAC = (rx40/100) = 0.4r, RCD = (rx60/100) = 0.6r, RDE = (rx50/100) = 0.5r, REF =
(rx100/100) = r
IAC = 220A, ICD = 190A, IDE = 150A, IEF = 50A
VAC = 220x0.4r = 88r, VCD = 190x0.6r = 114r, VDE = 150x0.5r = 75r, VEF = 50xr=50r
Example 13.2 – Total potential drop = 88r+114r+75r+50r = 327r
Solution Since total potential drop must not increase 10V, hence, 10 = 327r => r =
(10/327)Ω = 0.0306Ω
Since ‘r’ is the resistance of distributor per 100m and the distributor has two
conductors; therefore, resistance of each conductor per 100m is R = r/2 =
0.01529Ω
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 1.78×10−8 ×100
Since 𝑅 = ,𝐴 = = Ω = 1.164x10-4m2 = 1.164cm2 (Solution)
𝐴 𝑅 0.01529

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 Statement: Two tram cars (A & B) 2 km and 6 km away from a sub-station
return 40 A and 20 A respectively to the rails. The sub-station voltage is 600 V
DC. The resistance of trolley wire is 0.25 Ω/km and that of track is 0.03 Ω/km.
Calculate the voltage across each tram car.
Solution:
Resistance of trolley wire + track per kilometer = (0.25+0.03)Ω/km = 0.28 Ω/km
RSA = (0.28x2)Ω = 0.56Ω, RAB = (0.28x4)Ω = 1.12Ω
Example 13.3 VSA = (60x0.56)V = 33.6V, VAB = (20x1.12)V = 22.4V
VA = VS–VSA = (600-33.6)V = 566.4V, VB = VA–VAB = (566.4-22.4)V = 544V
(Solution)

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 Statement: The load distribution on a two-wire DC distributor is shown in figure.
The cross-sectional area of each conductor is 0.27 cm2. The end A is supplied at 250
V. Resistivity of the wire is ρ = 1·78 μΩ-cm. Calculate (i) the current in each section
of the conductor (ii) the two-core resistance of each section (iii) the voltage at each
tapping point.
Solution: Area of each conductor = 0.27 cm2 = 0.000027 m2, ρ = 1.78 x 10-6Ωcm =
1.78 x 10-8Ωm
IAB = (12+15+20)A = 47A, IBC = (15+20)A = 35A, ICD = 20A

Example 13.4 RAB = 2 x

1.78×10−8 ×75
0.000027
Ω= 0.099Ω, RBC = 2 x
1.78×10−8 ×100
0.000027
Ω= 0.132Ω, RCD = 2 x
1.78×10−8 ×50
Ω= 0.066Ω
0.000027
VB = VA–VAB = (250-(47x0.099)) = V = 245.347 V, VC = VB–VBC = (245.347-(35x0.132))V
= 240.727 V, VD = VC–VCD = (240.727-(20x0.066))V = 239.407 V (Solution)

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 Attempt all the tutorial problems on page
Exercise 1 316 of the softcopy of your textbook
available from shared OneDrive link

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  i = current per meter length of distributor
 l = length of the distributor
 r = resistance per meter length of distributor
Uniformly-  Current left in distributor at point C = il – ix = i(l–x)
 Voltage drop in section dx, dv = i(l–x)rdx = ir(l–x)dx
Loaded 𝑥 𝑥2
 Total voltage drop in AB up to point C = ‫׬‬0 𝑖𝑟 𝑙 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑥 −
Distributor Fed 𝑙2 1 1
2
𝟏
 Total voltage drop in AB of length ‘l’ = 𝑖𝑟 𝑙 2 − = 𝑖𝑟𝑙 2 = (𝑖𝑙)(𝑟𝑙) = 𝑰𝑹
at One End 2 2 2 𝟐
 Observation: Total voltage drop in this distributor is equal to that produced
by whole load (current ‘I’ or ‘il’) concentrated at midpoint (‘R/2’ or ‘r(l/2)’)

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 Statement: A 2-wire DC distributor 200m long is uniformly loaded with
2A/meter. Resistance of single wire is 0.3Ω/km. If the distributor is fed at one
end, calculate:
(i) the voltage drop up to 150 m from the feeding point
(ii) the maximum voltage drop
Example 13.5 Solution: l = 200m = 0.2km, i = 2Am-1 = 2000Akm-1
𝑥2
Voltage drop up to 150m = 𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑥 − = 2000 × 0.6 ቀ(0.2 × 0.15) −
2
0.152
ቁ = 1200 0.03 − 0.01125 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝑽
2
1 1 1 1
 Total voltage drop in distributor = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑖𝑙 𝑟𝑙 = 𝑖𝑟𝑙 2 = 2000 ×
2 2 2 2
0.6 × 0.22 = 𝟐𝟒 𝑽 (Solution)

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 Statement: A uniform 2-wire DC distributor 500m long is loaded with 0.4 A/m
and is fed at one end. If the maximum permissible voltage drop is not to
exceed 10 V, find the cross-sectional area of the distributor conductor. Take ρ =
1.7x10−6 Ω-cm.

Example 13.6

Resistance per
meter of both wires

If resistance per meter of both

wires is ‘r’ then resistance per [∵ 1 𝑚 = 100 𝑐𝑚]
meter of single wire should be ‘r/2’

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 Statement: A 250 m , 2-wire DC distributor fed from one end is loaded
uniformly at the rate of 1.6 A/m. The resistance of each conductor is 0.2 mΩ
per meter. Calculate the voltage necessary at feed point to maintain 250 V (i)
at the far end (ii) at the mid-point of the distributor.

Example 13.7 Solution: I = 1.6x250A = 400A, R = 2x0.0002x250Ω = 0.1Ω

Total voltage drop = 0.5x400x0.1V = 20V which implies a feeding end voltage
of (250+20)V = 270V
Voltage drop at mid-point (x = l/2) = 0.375x400x0.1V = 15V which implies a
feeding end voltage of (250+15)V = 265V (Solution)

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 Attempt all the tutorial problems on page
Exercise 2 319 of the softcopy of your textbook
available from shared OneDrive link

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  Distributor is connected to supply at both ends and load is taken out at
various points, in bulk, along the length of this distributor
 Minimum voltage comes at some point on distributor between supply ends
A and B (not necessarily at mid-point of distributor)
 Point of min. voltage depends on current distribution and voltages at ends
 Area of cross-section of conductor is much less than singly-fed distributor
Distributor Fed  Due to lower voltage drop in this distributor because of it being fed at both ends
 For singly-fed distributor, larger conductors are required to keep the drop within
at Both Ends permissible limits as they are only fed at one end

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  Voltage drop across conductor happens because of its resistance
 Increasing conductor cross-section area, A, to decrease its
Distributor Fed resistance, R, will reduce this drop
at Both Ends –  Feeding the distributor at both ends also reduces this voltage drop

Concentrated  Points of feeding at both ends may have equal or unequal voltages
 Point of minimum potential lies between A and B (not at far end)
Loading
 Load at the point of minimum potential supplied by feeding
sources at both ends

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 Attempt all the tutorial problems on page
Exercise 3 325 of the softcopy of your textbook
available from shared OneDrive link

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  Current supplied from each feeding point is il/2
 Current at point C at a distance ‘x’ from feeding point A is il/2 – ix = i(l/2 – x)
 Voltage drop in section dx near C is given by, dv = i(l/2 – x)rdx where ‘r’ is the
Uniformly resistance per unit length => dv = ir(l/2 – x)dx
 Total voltage drop, V is:
Loaded 𝑥
𝑙
𝑉 = න 𝑖𝑟
− 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Distributor Fed 0
𝑙𝑥 𝑥 2
2
𝑖𝑟
at Both Ends 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑟
2
−
2
=
2
𝑙𝑥 − 𝑥 2

With Equal  The point of minimum potential will be in middle, so total voltage drop at
mid-point, x = l/2, is:
Voltages 𝑖𝑟 𝑙 𝑙
2
𝑖𝑟 𝑙 2 𝑙 2 𝑖𝑟𝑙 2 𝟏
V= 𝑙 − = − = = 𝑰𝑹
2 2 2 2 2 4 8 𝟖
1
 Minimum voltage = V – 𝐼𝑅
8

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  Point of minimum potential will lie at some point between A and B (not the middle)
dictated by voltages at A and B
 Current supplied from feeding point A to point of minimum potential ‘C’ is ix
 Resistance of small section ‘dx’ in section AC = rdx, Current in section AC = ix
Uniformly  dv = ixrdx = irxdx, hence voltage drop in AC is:
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥2
𝑉 = න 𝑖𝑟𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑖𝑟 න 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑖𝑟
Loaded 0 0 2
 Since current supplied from B to C is i(l-x), therefore, voltage drop in BC is ir(l-x)2/2
Distributor Fed  Voltage at point C, VC = VA – VAC = VA – irx2/2 --- (i)
at Both Ends  Also, voltage at point C, VC = VB – VBC = VB – ir(l-x)2/2 --- (ii)
 Comparing (i) and (ii), we get:
With Unequal VA – irx2/2 = VB – ir(l-x)2/2
Voltages VA – irx2/2 = VB – irl2/2 – irx2/2 – 2irlx/2
VA – VB + irl2/2 = irlx
 Dividing both sides by ‘irl’, we get:
𝑽𝑨 − 𝑽𝑩 𝒍
𝒙= +
𝒊𝒓𝒍 𝟐

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 Statement: A two-wire DC distributor cable 1000m long is loaded with
0.5A/m. Resistance of each conductor is 0.05Ω/km. Calculate the maximum
voltage drop if the distributor is fed from both ends with equal voltages of
220V. What is the minimum voltage and where it occurs ?

Example 13.14 Solution: r = 0.05Ω/km = 0.00005Ω/m

I = il = (0.5x1000)A = 500A, R = 2rl = (2x0.00005x1000)Ω = 0.1Ω
1 1
Therefore, Maximum voltage drop = 𝐼𝑅 = 500 0.1 𝑉 = 6.25 V
8 8
And, minimum voltage at mid-point is VM = 220 – 6.25V = 213.75V

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