Organisationalbehaviour (Bba 231) Unit2.Personality, Learning &values

OrganisationalBehaviour
(BBA 231)
Unit2.Personality, Learning &Values
Halaswamy D PhD
AssistantProfessor
SchoolofBusiness &Management
MISSION VISION CORE VALUES
CHRIST is a nurturing ground for an individual’s Excellence and Service Faith in God | Moral Uprightness
holisticdevelopment to make effective contribution to Love of Fellow Beings
the society in a dynamic environment Social Responsibility | Pursuit of Excellence
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Deemed to be Unive rsity
Excellence and Service

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Deemed to be University

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A) ExtraversionandIntroversion
When we talk about "extraversion" and "introversion", we are distinguishing
between the two worlds in which all of us live. There is a world inside
ourselves, and a world outside ourselves. When we are dealing with the
world outside of ourself, we are "extraverting". When we are inside our own
minds,weare"introverting".
Weareextravertingwhen we:
● Talktootherpeople
● Listentowhatsomeoneis saying
● Cookdinner, ormakea cupofcoffee
● Workona car
Weareintrovertingwhen we:
● Reada book
● Thinkaboutwhatwewanttosay ordo
● Areawareofhowwefeel
● Thinkthrougha problemso thatweunderstandit
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B) Sensing andIntuition Deemed to be University
● The "SN" preference refers to how we gather information. We a l need data on which
to base our decisions. We gather data through our five senses. There are two
distinct ways ofperceiving the data thatwe gather.
● The"Sensing" preferenceabsorbs datain a literal,concretefashion.
● The "Intuitive" preference generates abstract possibilities from information that is
gathered.
● We al use both Sensing and Intuition in our lives, but to different degrees of
effectivenessandwithdifferentlevelsofcomfort.
WeareSensing whenwe:
● Tastefood
● Noticea stoplighthas changed
● Memorizea speech
● Followsteps in a plan
WeareIntuitivewhenwe:
● Comeupwitha newwayofdoingthings
● Thinkaboutfutureimplications fora currentaction
● Perceive underlyingmeaningin whatpeoplesay ordo
● See thebig picture
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C) Thinking andFeeling
o People have the capability to make decisions based on two very different
sets ofcriteria:Thinking andFeeling.
o Whensomeonemakesa decisionthatis basedon logic and reason,theyare
operatingin Thinkingmode.
o When someone makes a decision thatis based on their value system, or
whattheybelievetoberight,theyareoperatingin Feelingmode.
o We al use both modes formaking decisions, butweputmore trust intoone
modeortheother.
o A "Thinker" makes decisions in a rational, logical, impartial manner, based
onwhattheybelievetobefairandcorrectbypre-definedrulesofbehavior.
o A "Feeler" makes decisions on the individual case, in a subjective manner
basedonwhattheybelievetoberightwithintheirownvaluesystems.
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Thinking andFeelingcontd…
Wearemakingdecisions in theThinkingmodewhenwe:
● Research a product via consumer reports, and buy thebest one tomeet our
needs
● Do "TheRightThing",whether ornotwelikeit
● Choose not to buy a blue shirt which we like, because we have two blue
shirts
● Establish guidelinestofollowforperformingtasks
Wearemakingdecisions in theFeelingmodewhenwe:
● Decide tobuysomethingbecausewelikeit
● Refrainfromtelling someone somethingwhichwefeelmayupsetthem
● Decide nottotakea jobbecausewedon't liketheworkenvironment
● Decide tomovesomewheretobeclosetosomeone wecareabout
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D) Judging andPerceiving
Judging and Perceiving preferences, within the context of personality types,
refers to our attitude towards the external world, and how we live our lives on
a day-to-day basis. People with the Judging preference want things to be
neat, orderly and established. The Perceiving preference wants things to be
flexible and spontaneous. Judgers want things settled, Perceivers want thing
open-ended.
Weareusing Judgingwhenwe:
● Makea listofthingstodo
● Schedule thingsin advance
● Formandexpress judgments
● Bringclosuretoan issue so thatwecan moveon
Weareusing Perceivingwhenwe:
● Postponedecisions tosee whatotheroptionsareavailable
● Actspontaneously
● Decidewhattodoas wedoit,ratherthanforminga planaheadoftime
● Do thingsatthelastminute
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Conclusions ....
● Each factorhelpsus understandwhatbehaviouralpatternstoobservein
understandingsomeone’s personality.
● Forexample,theextraversionfactorleadsus toobservewhethera personis

generallyquietorreserved,ortalkativeoroutgoing,orsomewherein
between.
● Each oftheotherfactorshelpsin a similarmanner.
● Key elementsofeachfactorcombinetoprovidean overallunderstandingof

anindividual’s personality.
This abilitytounderstand differentpersonalities helps

managers predictanindividual’s behaviourin different
situations.
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The“BigFive”PersonalityTheory (McCrae1992;Smithetal.2001)
1. Extraversion:Focuses on the comfortlevel of an individualin their
interactionswithothers.
For example, an individual’s behaviour may range from being assertive,

outgoing, talkative, open (extraversion) to being timid, quiet, and reserved
(introversion).
2. Agreeableness: An individual’s behaviour towards others while

interacting withthem.
For example, the behaviour may range from being warm, cooperative, and
close (high agreeableness) to cold, antagonistic, and distant (low
agreeableness).

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3.Conscientiousness: Extent towhichindividualsshow consistent and reliable

behaviourwhileworkingin an organization.
An individual’s style may range from being highly responsible, dependable,

reliable, and consistent (high conscientiousness) to being unreliable,
disorganized, and inconsistent (low conscientiousness); from performing
workin a detailedand structuredmanner to performingwork in a general and
spontaneousway

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The“Big Five”PersonalityTheory contd...
4. Emotional stability: Ability of an individual to control his or her emotions at

thetimeofcrisis.
Individuals with high stability are more contro led with their emotions and are
calm and self-confident. On the other hand, those with low emotional stability
aremorenervous,depressed,andinsecurein theirapproach.
5. Openness to experience:Measures theindividual’s ability tobe open toany

kindofexperiencethathelpshimorhertodothejobeffectively.
Individuals who are open to experience are more approachable, creative,

and sensitive. However, those who are less open to experience are
conservativein theirapproachandfeeluncomfortableina newenvironment.

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DISC MODEL OF PERSONALITY:
Harvardpsychologist namedDr.William MoultonMarston in the1920's

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OtherPersonalityTraits
1.Authoritarianism :
● It is the degreeto which a person believesthat status and power

differencesareappropriatein an organization
● People high in authoritarianism tend to be autocratic and demanding with

subordinates but are likely to accept orders and directions from superiors
withoutquestions.
● High authoritarian types would not fit wel in organizations that require
flexibility and quick change or sensitivity to people and cooperative
behaviour.
● They would fit better in a highly structured organization that values

conformity(compliancewithstandards,rules,orlaws.)
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2.Locusof control: Refers toanindividual'sperceptionabouttheunderlyingmaincauses

ofeventsinhis/herlife. Or,moresimply:Do youbelievethat yourdestinyis controlledbyyourselforby
externalforces(suchas fate,god,orpowerfulothers)
● Locus of control refers to an individual’s belief that events are either within
one’s control (Internal Locus of Control) or are determined by forces beyond
one’scontrol.
● Some people believe that they are the masters of their own fate (internals).
Other people see themselves as pawns of fate, believing that whatever
happenstothemintheirlivesis duetotheirluckorfate(externals).
● Thefirsttypeis labeledas internalsandthelatterhas beencalledexternals.
A PERSON’S PERCEPTION OF THE SOURCE OF HIS OR HER FATE IS

TERMED LOCUS OF CONTROL.

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2.Locusof controlcontd…
a) InternalLocus of Control:
(i)A person with a strong internal locus of control has more control over his own
behavior. He believes that he controls events concerning his own life and his
internal traits determine what happens in a given situation. He believes that
heis themasterofhis owndensity.
(ii) These people are more active in seeking more information to make
decisions. They are better at retaining the information and are less satisfied
withtheamountofinformationtheypossess.
(iii) Internalsaremoreactivesocially.
(iv) Internalspreferskillachievementoutcomes.
(v) Internals are more likely to use personally persuasive rewards and power
bases andless likelytousecoercion.

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b) ExternalLocus of Control:
(i) People who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, have
higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from the work setting and are
less involved on jobs than are internals. They generally prefer directive
management.
(ii) Unliketheinternals,thesepeoplepreferchanceorientedawards.
(iii)A person with a strong ‘externallocus of control’feels that outside forces are
affecting the events in his life and he is at the mercy of destiny, chance or
other people. He believes that everything wil happen by the wil of God and
nothingornobodycanstopit.
(iv) Unlike, the internals, the externals are more interested in job security and not
in advancementofcareers.

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3.Machiavellianism: Deemed to be University
This personality trait of Machiavellianism also known as Mach is named after

Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote in the 16th century on how to gain and use
power. Practical
● A Mach man is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes that
endscanjustifymeans.
● A high Mach man manipulates more, wins more, are persuaded less and
persuadeothersmorethanthelowmachs.
● High Mach peopleflourish when theyinteract face toface withothers rather
thanindirectly.
● These people are successful when the situation has a minimum number of
rulesandregulations.
● High Mach man has high self confidence and high self esteem. They are cool
and calculating and have no hesitation using others or taking advantage of
othersin ordertoservetheirowngoals.
● They are noteasily swayedby a sense of friendship,trustor loyalty. Theyare
speciallysuccessfulin exploitingstructuredsituationsandvulnerablepeople.
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4.Self-esteem:
Itis thejudgementonemakesaboutone’sownworth.
People withhighself-esteem tendtolike themselves, havehigh expectations for

success, andfeelconfidentthattheycanachievetheirgoals.
Those with low self-esteem lack confidence and look to others for praise and
reinforcement.
In so doing,theytendtoavoidconflictandconformtoexpectednorms

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5.Risk Taking :
● This referstoa person’swillingnesstotakerisks.

● People witha high propensity for risk make decisions faster and are willing
totakechances.
● Risk-aversive peopleare morecautious, make decisions morecarefuly, and
trytominimizerisk.
● High-risk managers may make costly decisions, although they may also
enabletheirorganizationtorespondquicklytofastchangingenvironments.
● Low-risk managers may also make costly decisions if they respond too
slowlytochangingcompetitiveconditions.
● Theappropriationofeachdependson theorganizationalsituations

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6.Self-monitoring :
● This refers to the degree to which people are sensitive to others and adapt their
behaviourtomeetexternalexpectationsandsituationneeds .
● High self-monitors are similar toactors in thatthey can assume a personality to

satisfyan audience.
skilled
● Theyareadeptatseparating theirprivateselves fromtheirpublic selves.
● People who are low self-monitors reveal themselves much more clearly and tend to
bethemselvesregardless ofthesituationorothers’expectations.
● The high self-monitor may be more flexible in interacting with different types of
people.
● Theintentis todevelopflexibilityandeffectivenessin interactingwitha rangeof

peopleandsituation

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7.Achievementorientated:
● The people with very high achievement orientation strive to do things in a

better way.
● Theywanttofeelthattheirsuccess orfailureis duetotheirownactions.
● These people do not like to perform easy tasks where there is no challenge
ortasks withveryhigh amountofrisk as thefailurerateis more.
● These people like to do the acts with moderate difficulties, so that they can
have a sense of achievement also and on the other hand the failure rate is
alsonotveryhigh.

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Therightpersonalityfora globalworkplace
As work becomes increasingly international in focus, successful managers

need to be able to operate across cultures easily. Obviously, expatriate
managers working in other countries wil need personality traits that make
them better able to work overseas, but managers at home who order parts
and services from overseas or prepare marketing plans for other countries,
for example, wil also conduct cross-cultural communications. In the
workforce of the future, everyone from mechanics to customer service
representatives to advertisers wil need to understand the global market.
Whatis therightpersonalityfora globalworkplace?

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You might suspect that, of the Big Five traits, openness to experience would
be most important to effectiveness in international assignments. Open
people are more likely to be cultura ly flexible—to “go with the flow” when
things are different in another country. Research is not fu ly consistent on the
issue, but most does suggest that managers who score high on openness
perform better than others in international assignments. Other evidence
suggests that employees who are more agreeable and extraverted have an
easier time with international assignments. They may be better at
establishing new relationships and developing social networks in unfamiliar
contexts.

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● Whatdotheseresultsimplyfororganizations?
● Given continuing globalization in the future, organizations should select
employees with traits related to better performance in international
assignments. Managers wil need to foster an open-minded perspective
aboutotherculturesamongtheiremployees.

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Values
● Values are stable enduring beliefs, about what is worthwhile, that influence thoughts and
behaviour.
● Values are learned, beginning soon after birth, as parents and others indicate that certain
behaviours are goodand certainothersarebad.
● Childrenin manycultureslearnquicklythatitis goodtobeobedientand badtodisobey.

● They may learn that honesty, cleanliness, politeness, and similar traits, are good and thus
valued.
● Values are beliefs or convictions that guide behaviour and support the overall organizational
vision.
● Typical values in today’s organizations include exceeding customer needs, engagement,

innovation, quality of life for associates, integrity, safety, development of people, and cost
containment.
● Successful organizations develop values that guide behaviour and help achieve
organizationalvision
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Deemed to be Universit y

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TypesofValues : Deemed to be University
1. Theoretical: Values the discovery of truth and emphasizes a critical and

rationalapproachtoa problem.
2. Economic:Valuesutilityandpracticalityandemphasizesstandardofliving.
3. Aesthetic: Values form, grace, and harmony and emphasizes the artistic
aspectsoflife.
4. Social: Values love of people and humanity, and emphasizes concern for
others.
5. Political: Values power, position, and influenceand emphasizes competition

andwinning.
6. Religious:Values unity of people’srelationshipto the universeand

emphasizeshighidealsandthesearchforthepurposeofbeingon earth
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Researchers havefoundthatthevaluespeopleemphasize
varywiththeiroccupations…
Forexample,
● scientists ofallkinds areoftentheoreticalyinclined;

● business peopleemphasizeeconomicvalue;
● artistshavea high aestheticvalue;
● psychologists, social workers,and manyteachersare inclined towardssocial
values;
● executivesin allfields oftenhavea highpoliticalvalue;
● philosophersandthesaintsoftenholdhigh religious values.

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InstrumentalValues & TerminalValues

● Instrumental values describe desirable beliefs
about behaviours that are appropriate in reaching
desiredgoals andends.
Examples includebeing loving,honest,andambitious.
● Terminal values describe desirable ends that are

worthstrivingfor.
Examples include a comfortable, prosperous life; world
peace;and salvation.
These two sets of values work in coherence to help

individuals set goals for themselves and also aspire
toachievethesegoals.
A list of instrumental and termiEnxacelvlleanlcueeansdiSserpvriceesented

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MergingPersonalandOrganizationalValues
● Peopleentertheworkforcewitha personalvaluesystemin place
● A personal value system is a relatively permanent perceptual framework - an

enduring organization of beliefs that shapes and influences the general
natureoftheindividual’s behaviour
● However, because organizations incorporate selected values into their

culture, there can at times be a tug-of-war between personal and
organizationalvalues

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● Managerscarry with them a set of intended values that are socially or

culturalyinduced.
● These areidealsthatareimportantpersonallytothemanagers.
● However, to be successful in an organization,managers may learn adopted

values,a setofvaluesthatarepartoftheorganization’sculture.
● When personal values (intended) and organizational values (adopted) are

congruent,thesebecomehighlypragmaticoperativevalues
● Moral dilemmas, internal conflicts, and ethical compromisesoccur when

personallyintendedandorganizationallyinducedvaluesclash.
● Ironically,thiscallsintoquestiontheallembracingvalueofintegrity
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EXAMPLES OF ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES
● Leading Indian business houses are witnessing a resurgence of values and ethics.
They have realizedthatit is not possible to createvalue withoutcherishing a strong
sense of values. Leaders who attach importance to values create organizations that
arecommittedtodoingtherightthing.
● The Chief Mentor of Infosys Technologies, N. R. Narayana Murthy, highly

respected in India and abroad, is known for the importance that he gives to values
in personal and professional life. His office in Bangalore does not have an air-
conditioner. He does not know how to drive. On Saturdays, when his driver takes
his weekly off, his wife drives him to the bus stop from where he takes the Infosys
bus towork.
● Employees of 3M firmly believe in the company’s driving value of
innovation.
● Johnson & Johnson’s values drives decisions that have fostered a high-trust
environment and established thecompany as one of thebest employers
worldwide. Excellence and Service
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● A famous international example of regaining employee and customer trust was the
challenge faced by Bridgestone/Firestone CEO John Lampe in 2000 when the company
had to reca l millions of defective tyres. He had to re-establish integrity in the
manufacturing quality-control processes while also regaining the trust of both employees
and customers. Lampe’s integrity, sincerity, and the importance he placed on stringent
qualitycontrolprocesses werea criticalfactorin thecompany’sturnaround.
● AttheTimberland Company,a communityinvolvementvaluehas resultedin employees

amassing morethan200,000hours ofcommunityservice.
● Wal-Mart and Nordstrom are exceptional examples of retail firms that employ the
customer service value in a l aspects of their business. In these corporations, employees
have a high degree oftrustthattheircompany’s values are “real.”

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● Perhaps, Tom Watson Sr showed the best example of behaviour consistent

with values, even under difficult circumstances, when he ran IBM. One day, a
junior executive who had made a $10-million mistake was asked to meet
Watson. Because of his costly blunder, the employee assumed he was about
to be fired. But Watson believed then, as many of his followers believe now,
that one of the most critical values at IBM is the development of people. So,
when the junior executive asked if he was being fired, Watson quickly
responded with an emphatic “No!” Then, Watson added, “I just spent $10
million educating you- why would I want to fire you now?” Such exemplary
consistency in instilling a set of values could not fail to create an enormously
high level of employee trust and set a model for all other leaders and
associates.
Source:Adapted fromVenkatramani,S. H.(1999). “Moralsin Management”, Life Positive, June.Availableat www.lifepositive.
com/Mind/work/corporate-management/business-ethics.asp (accessed November 2008).

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ValueConflict:
● Intrapersonal Value Conflict: Intrapersonal value conflict is experienced when

highly ranked instrumental or terminal values pu l the individual in different
directions.
● Interpersonal Value Conflict: Interpersonal value conflictexists when a person

encountersdifficultiesin interpersonalrelations.
● Individual–Organization Conflict: Conflict that arises when individual

employees find themselves at odds with their employing organization’s value
system.

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Changes inValues withTime
● Although values are relatively enduring with the possible exception of those
adoptedas a result of organizational membership- theycan and do shiftover
time.
● Important local, national, and world events lead to changing attitudes, needs,
andvalues.
● An awareness of values can help managers understand and predict the

behaviourofothers.
For example, they may assume that workers in their fifties and sixties are
more likely to be accepting of authority than workers in their thirties and
forties. They might reasonably predict that older workers are more likely to be
loyal to the organization than those who are younger, although this may be
changing
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Meaning of Learning
● Learningis a relativelypermanentchangein thefrequencyof occurrenceofa

specificindividualbehaviour.
● In an organization, a manager wants employees to learn productive work

behaviours,whichtoa greatextentdependuponenvironmentalfactors.
● The manager’s goal, then, is to provide learning experiences in an

environment that wil promote employee behaviours desired by the
organization.
● In the work setting, learning can take place in one of the following ways:
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning, cognitive
learning,andprogrammedlearning.

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Theoriesof learning Deemed to be University
1.Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov ,Russian

Psychologist)
● Classical conditioning is a process by which
individuals learnreflexbehaviours.
● A reflex is an involuntary, or an automatic,
response that is not under an individual’s
conscious control.
● In classical conditioning, an unconditioned
stimulus (environmental event) causes a
reflexiveresponse.
● Sometimes a natural environment event,
called a conditioned stimulus, is initially paired
with the unconditioned stimulus.
● Eventually, the conditioned stimulus alone
yields the reflexive behaviour. Environmental
events that precede a reflexive response
control it.
Exce
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Fromthemanagerialpointof view,… .
● Classicalconditioningusuallyis not considered applicableto the work

setting.
● Desired employee behaviours typically do not include reflexive responses

thatcanbechangedbyusing classicalconditioningtechniques.
● Instead,managers are interestedin the voluntarybehavioursof

employeesandhowthesebehaviourscanbeinfluenced

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2.OperantConditioning (involving themodificationofbehaviourbythereinforcing

orinhibitingeffectofitsownconsequences)
● A process bywhichindividuals learnvoluntarybehaviour
● A method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for
behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made
between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or
positive) for thatbehavior
● For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on,
they receive a food pelet as a reward. When they press the lever
when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a
result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and
avoid the red light.
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Operantbehavioursareof interesttomanagers because…
● They can influence or manage such behaviour by changing the results of

thesebehaviours.
● The crucial aspect of operantconditioningis what happens as a

consequenceofthebehaviour.
● That is, consequenceslargely determine the strength and frequency of

operantconditionedbehaviours.
● Thus, managers must understand the effects of different consequences on

thetaskbehaviourofemployees.

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3.Cognitivetheory(JeanPiaget,aSwiss psychologist)
● Suggeststhatthelearneris an activeparticipantin theprocess.
● They come to the table with their own skills, knowledge, memories and
relevantinformationthey’velearnedin thepast.
● When learning something new, individuals process and construct their own
understandingofa topicbasedon theirpastexperiencesandknowledge.
● CognitiveLearningStrategies in corporateworld….
1. Learner-centered approach
2. Bloom’s taxonomy
3. Learning throughdiscovery
4. Creating meaningful experiencesforyour learners

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3A)Learner-centeredapproach
● Learningis cumulativeandrelativetoeachindividual.Whenwe’relearning,
westartwitha baselineofknowledgeandgo fromthere.JeanPiaget,a
Swiss psychologistandpioneerofCognitiveLearningTheory,favoredthis
learner-centeredapproachtoteaching. He suggested thataccommodation,
assimilation,andequilibrationareallcrucialtolearning:
○ Accommodation– howwemodifywhatwealreadyknowtotakenewinformation into

account;
○ Assimilation– howthenewknowledgeis arranged in ourheads alongsidewhatwe
alreadyknow;
○ Equilibration– thebalancebetweenwhatwealreadyknowand whatwe’recurrently
mastering.

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3B) Bloom’s taxonomy

● Bloom’s taxonomy, named after educational
psychologist Benjamin Bloom, describes six different
levelsofcognitivelearningintheformofa hierarchy.
● At its most basic level, the taxonomy describes the

essential abilities neededto reca l information thathas
beentaught.
● While at thehighest levelit describes a learner’sability

to take what has been taught, analyze it and use it to
createandevaluate.
● When training within your organization trainers and

Learning and Development Managers should consider
the depth of cognitive learning they need to achieve
fromagivencourse.
● For example, if you’re training new hires to provide

support to customers, it’s likely that remembering,
understanding and applying the information provided
is sufficient

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3C)Learningthrough discovery
● Activelearnerinvolvementis a corefeatureofcognitivelearning.
● Jerome Bruner, a psychologist who studied cognitive learning

in children, suggested that instead of simply feeding
students information, we should alow them to discover it for
themselves.
● Giving your learners opportunities to complete meaningful tasks

to solidify learning, for example, role-playing customer service
scenarios
● Asking participants to solve real-world challenges your organization

faces during training.
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3D) Creatingmeaningfulexperiencesforyourlearners
● When trainers make a marked effort to show why a lesson is meaningful for
the learner, there’s a significantly higher chance of it becoming anchored in
thebrainalongsidewhat’s alreadyknown.
● This means that before diving into a complex topic, trainers should cover
some introductory material or offer some background to the topic. When
learners have the relevant background knowledge, it’s easier for them to ‘slot
in’newinformation.
● Foryourorganization,thismeans:
○ New information should be sequenced carefuly so that this knowledge builds on what
yourlearner already fullyunderstands
○ Prefacing newmaterialwithintroductoryor background information is important
○ Trainers should emphasize howeach elementofthesession is meaningful tothejobor
task yourlearneris being preparedfor.

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Social LearningTheory (by AlbertBandura OC was a Canadian-American psychologist whowas the

David Starr Jordan Professor in Psychologyat Stanford University.)
● Social (or Observational) Learning Theory stipulates that

peoplecanlearnnewbehaviors byobserving others.
● Earlier learning theories emphasized how people behave

in response to environmental stimuli, such as physical
rewardsorpunishment.
● In contrast, social learning emphasizes the reciprocal

relationship between social characteristics of the
environment, how they are perceived by individuals, and
how motivated and able a person is to reproduce
behaviors theysee happening aroundthem.
● People both influence and are influenced by the world

aroundthem.

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According toSocial LearningTheory,peoplelearnby:
• Observing whatotherpeopledo
• Considering the apparent
consequences experienced by
thosepeople
• Rehearsing (at first mentaly) what
might happen in their own lives if
they folowed the other peoples’
behavior
• Taking action by trying the
behaviorthemselves
• Comparing their experiences with
whathappenedtotheotherpeople
• Confirming their belief in the new
behavior

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5Principlesof learningare;
1.Participation,2.Repetition,3. Relevance.4.Transference5.Feedback
1. Participation :
Learningshouldpermitandencourageactiveparticipationofthelearner.
Participation improves motivation and apparently engages more senses that

reinforcethelearningprocess.
As a result of participation, people learn more quickly and retain that learning
longer.
Forexample,
Most peopleneverforgethowto ride a bicycle because theyactivelyparticipatedin the
learningprocess.
--- The learningactivitiesshouldbeexperientialratherthanjustinformational.
---The trainersshould arrange the physical surroundingsto facilitate small group
interactionandpromotethesharing ofideas.
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2.Repetition:
An importantprincipleof the learningis to providethe learnerwith the

opportunityforpracticeandrepetition.
To gain the ful benefit of training learned behaviors must be overlearned to

ensuresmoothperformanceandminimumofforgettingata laterdate.
Proficiency in learning and retaining new skills is improved when individuals

visualizethemselves performingthenewbehavior.

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3.Relevance
● Learningis helpedwhenthematerialtobelearnedis meaningful.
● Thelearningshouldbe problem-centeredratherthancontentcentered.
● People are motivated to learn when training is immediatelyrelevant to help

themsolvea currentproblem.
● Learning something just because someone says “it is important”is not as

motivating.

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4. Transference
● Because thetrainingoccursin a specialenvironment,an importantquestion
toask is whetherlearningwil transfertotheactualjobsituation.
● Transferoftrainingoccurswhentraineescanapplytheknowledgeandskills
learnedin trainingcoursetotheirjobs.
● Ifthelearningin onesetting doesnottransfertotheactualjobsituation,the

traininghas failed.
Threetransfers trainingsituations arepossible

(1) Positive transferoftrainingwhenthetrainingactivitiesenhance performancein
thenewsituation;
(2)Negativetransferoftraining,whenthetrainingactivitiesinhibitperformancein a
newsituation;and
(3)No observableeffectoftraining.
CHRIST
5.Feedback Deemed to be University
● Feedbackgives learners informationontheirprogress.

● Performancefeedback is a necessaryprerequisiteforlearning.
● Feedback improvesperformancenot only by helping learners correcttheir mistakes
butalso byprovidingreinforcementforlearning.
● Knowledgeofresultsis a positivereinforcementitself.
● Learningactivitieshavemoreintrinsic interestifthefeedbackis available.
● Nevertheless, performance feedback should do more than inform learners whether
theywererightor wrong.
● Merely informingthetrainees thattheywerewrong is notas effectiveas teling them

whytheywerewrongandhowtheycanavoidmakingmistakesinthefuture.
● In general, knowledge of results is an essential feature of learning, and this
knowledgecomes afterthelearner’sresponse.

CHRIST
DISCIPLINE WITHOUTPUNISHMENT
The Vermont plant of General Electric operates in the following manner. An
employee who does not folow the company’s disciplinary norms such as being
on time for work or who misbehaves with another colleague gets an oral
reprimand rather than a written reminder. If the employee continues with the
same behaviour, he is issued a written reminder. If the behaviour still persists,
then he is suspended with pay for a day.This day is referred to as the“decision-
making day.” The objectiveis to convey to the employeethat thecompanycares
forhimanditis uptohimtodecidehis futurecourseofaction.
Paying the employee helps in two ways: First, it gives GE the opportunity to
convey to the employee that the company is serious about the problem and
wants the employee to rethink whether GE is the right place for him or not; and
secondly, paying the employee helps to take care of the anger that might result if
he is terminated. The purpose of the day off with pay is to give the employee a
wake-upcal.
CHRIST
● This process helps to achieve a number of objectives. First, it communicates

to employees that the company is serious about the employee. It also
reminds the employee about the responsibility that he has towards the
company and gains his commitment to the company. Second, it sends a
clear message to a l employees that GE’s standards wil not be compromised
at any cost. And finally, the suspension provides tangible evidence that the
employee’sjobis atrisk.
● General Electric’s approach has been very effective. More than 85% of the
employees going through the programme have changed their behaviour and
stayed with the organization. Since the programme started, reported written
warnings and reminders dropped from 39 to 23 to 12 during the 2-year
period.
● Employeeswhodonotchangetheirbehaviourarefired.
(Adapted fromwww.ge.com.Accessed September 2008)
CHRIST
Schedules of Reinforcement
● The speed with which learning takes place and also how lasting its effects wil be is
determinedbythetiming ofreinforcement.
● Knowledgeof thetypes of schedules of reinforcement is essential tomanagers if theyare to

knowhowtochoose rewards thatwilhave maximumimpacton employeeperformance.
● Althoughthereare a variety ofways in whichrewardscan be administered,most approaches
can be categorized into two groups: continuous and partial (or intermittent) reinforcement
schedules.
● A continuous reinforcement schedule rewards desired behavior every time it occurs.

For example, a manager could praise (or pay) employees every time they perform properly.
With the time and resource constraints most managers work under, this is often difficult, if not
impossible.So, mostmanagerial rewardstrategies operateon a partialschedule.
● A partial reinforcement schedule rewards desired behavior at specific intervals, not every
time desired behavior is exhibited. Compared to continuous schedules, partial reinforcement
schedules lead to slower learning but stronger retention. Thus, learning is generally more
permanent.
Four kinds of partial reinforcement schedules can be identified: (1) fixed interval, (2) fixed
ratio,(3)variableinterval,and(4) variableratio
CHRIST

CHRIST
1.Fixed-IntervalSchedule.
● A fixed-interval reinforcement schedule rewards individuals at specified
intervalsfortheirperformance,as witha biweeklypaycheck.
● Ifemployeesperformevenminimally,theyarepaid.
● This technique generally does not result in high or sustained levels of

performance because employees know that marginal performance usually
leadstothesamelevelofrewardas high performance.
● Thus, there is little incentive for high effort and performance. Also, when
rewards are withheld or suspended, extinction of desired behavior occurs
quickly.
● Many of the recent job redesign efforts in organizations were prompted by

recognition of the need for alternate strategies of motivation rather than
payingpeopleonfixed-intervalschedules.
CHRIST
2.Fixed-RatioSchedule.
● Reward is administered only upon the completion of a given number of
desiredresponses.
● Rewardsaretiedtoperformancein a ratioofrewardstoresults.
● Example : a piece-rate pay system, whereby employees are paid for each
unit of output they produce. Under this system, performance rapidly reaches
highlevels.
● The response level here is significantly higher than that obtained under any
oftheinterval(time-based) schedules.
● On the negative side, however, performance declines sharply when the

rewardsarewithheld,as withfixed-intervalschedules.

CHRIST
3.Variable-IntervalSchedule.
● Both variable-interval and variable-ratio reinforcements are administered at random
timesthatcannotbepredictedbytheemployee.
● The employee is generally not aware of when the next evaluation and reward period
wilbe.
● Under a variable-interval schedule, rewards are administered at intervals of time that

are based on an average.
● For example, an employee may know that on the average her performance is
evaluated and rewarded about once a month, but she does not know when this event
wil occur. She does know, however, that it wil occur sometime during the interval of
a month.
● Under this schedule, effort and performance wil generally be high and fairly stable
overtimebecause employeesneverknowwhentheevaluationwil takeplace.
CHRIST
4.Variable-RatioSchedule.
● Rewards are administered only after an employee has performed the desired
behavior a number of times, with the number changing from the
administration of one reward to the next but averaging over time to a
certainratioofnumberofperformancesto rewards.
● For example, a manager may determine that a salesperson wil receive a

bonus for every 15th new account sold. However, instead of administering
the bonus every 15th sale (as in a fixed-interval schedule), the manager may
vary the number of sales that is necessary for the bonus, from perhaps 10
sales for the first bonus to 20 for the second. On the average, however, the
15:1 ratio prevails. If the employee understands the parameters, then the
“safe”level of sales, or the level of sales most likely to result in a bonus, is in
excess of 15. Consequently, the variable-ratio schedule typically leads to
high and stable performance. Moreover, extinction of desired behavior is
slow.
CHRIST
Whichof thesefourschedules of reinforcementis superior?

● The necessity for arranging appropriate reinforcement contingencies is
dramatica ly illustrated by several studies in which rewards were shifted from
a response-contingent(ratio)toa time-contingent(interval)basis.
● During the period in which rewards were made conditional upon occurrence
of the desired behavior, the appropriate response patterns were exhibited at
a consistentlyhigh level.
● When the same rewards were given based on time and independent of the
worker’sbehavior, therewas a markeddropin thedesiredbehavior.
● The reinstatements of the performance-contingent reward schedule promptly
restoredthehigh levelofresponsiveness.
● In other words, the performance-contingent (or ratio) reward schedules

generally lead to better performance than the time-contingent (or interval)
schedules,regardless ofwhethersuchschedules arefixedorvariable.

Organisationalbehaviour (Bba 231) Unit2.Personality, Learning &values

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OrganisationalBehaviour

Unit2.Personality, Learning &Values

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

● Forexample,theextraversionfactorleadsus toobservewhethera personis

● Each oftheotherfactorshelpsin a similarmanner.

● Key elementsofeachfactorcombinetoprovidean overallunderstandingof

This abilitytounderstand differentpersonalities helps

Excellence and Service

For example, an individual’s behaviour may range from being assertive,

2. Agreeableness: An individual’s behaviour towards others while

Excellence and Service

3.Conscientiousness: Extent towhichindividualsshow consistent and reliable

An individual’s style may range from being highly responsible, dependable,

Excellence and Service

The“Big Five”PersonalityTheory contd...

4. Emotional stability: Ability of an individual to control his or her emotions at

5. Openness to experience:Measures theindividual’s ability tobe open toany

Individuals who are open to experience are more approachable, creative,

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

● It is the degreeto which a person believesthat status and power

● People high in authoritarianism tend to be autocratic and demanding with

● They would fit better in a highly structured organization that values

2.Locusof control: Refers toanindividual'sperceptionabouttheunderlyingmaincauses

● Thefirsttypeis labeledas internalsandthelatterhas beencalledexternals.

A PERSON’S PERCEPTION OF THE SOURCE OF HIS OR HER FATE IS

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

This personality trait of Machiavellianism also known as Mach is named after

People withhighself-esteem tendtolike themselves, havehigh expectations for

Excellence and Service

● This referstoa person’swillingnesstotakerisks.

Excellence and Service

● High self-monitors are similar toactors in thatthey can assume a personality to

● Theintentis todevelopflexibilityandeffectivenessin interactingwitha rangeof

Excellence and Service

● The people with very high achievement orientation strive to do things in a

● Theywanttofeelthattheirsuccess orfailureis duetotheirownactions.

Excellence and Service

As work becomes increasingly international in focus, successful managers

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

● Childrenin manycultureslearnquicklythatitis goodtobeobedientand badtodisobey.

● Typical values in today’s organizations include exceeding customer needs, engagement,

Excellence and Service

TypesofValues : Deemed to be University

1. Theoretical: Values the discovery of truth and emphasizes a critical and

5. Political: Values power, position, and influenceand emphasizes competition

6. Religious:Values unity of people’srelationshipto the universeand

● scientists ofallkinds areoftentheoreticalyinclined;

Excellence and Service

InstrumentalValues & TerminalValues

● Terminal values describe desirable ends that are

These two sets of values work in coherence to help

A list of instrumental and termiEnxacelvlleanlcueeansdiSserpvriceesented

Excellence and Service

● Peopleentertheworkforcewitha personalvaluesystemin place

● A personal value system is a relatively permanent perceptual framework - an

● However, because organizations incorporate selected values into their