Organisational Behaviour (BBA 231) Unit 2. Personality & Learning

Organisational Behaviour
(BBA 231)
Unit 2. Personality & Learning
MISSION VISION CORE VALUES

CHRIST is a nurturing ground for an individual’s Excellence and Service Faith in God | Moral Uprightness
holistic development to make effective contribution to Love of Fellow Beings
the society in a dynamic environment Social Responsibility | Pursuit of Excellence
CHRIST
Deemed to be University
Excellence and Service

CHRIST

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Extraversion and Introversion

When we talk about "extraversion" and "introversion", we are
distinguishing between the two worlds in which all of us live. There is
a world inside ourselves, and a world outside ourselves. When we are
dealing with the world outside of ourself, we are "extraverting". When
we are inside our own minds, we are "introverting".
We are extraverting when we:
● Talk to other people
● Listen to what someone is saying
● Cook dinner, or make a cup of coffee
● Work on a car
We are introverting when we:
● Read a book
● Think about what we want to say or do
● Are aware of how we feel
● Think through a problem so that we understand it
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Sensing and Intuition
● The "SN" preference refers to how we gather information. We all need data
on which to base our decisions. We gather data through our five senses. Jung
contended that there are two distinct ways of perceiving the data that we
gather. The "Sensing" preference absorbs data in a literal, concrete fashion.
The "Intuitive" preference generates abstract possibilities from information
that is gathered. We all use both Sensing and Intuition in our lives, but to
different degrees of effectiveness and with different levels of comfort.
We are Sensing when we:
● Taste food
● Notice a stoplight has changed
● Memorize a speech
● Follow steps in a plan
We are Intuitive when we:
● Come up with a new way of doing things
● Think about future implications for a current action
● Perceive underlying meaning in what people say or do
● See the big picture

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Thinking and Feeling
o People have the capability to make decisions based on two very
different sets of criteria: Thinking and Feeling.
o When someone makes a decision that is based on logic and reason,
they are operating in Thinking mode.
o When someone makes a decision that is based on their value system,
or what they believe to be right, they are operating in Feeling mode.
o We all use both modes for making decisions, but we put more trust
into one mode or the other.
o A "Thinker" makes decisions in a rational, logical, impartial manner,
based on what they believe to be fair and correct by pre-defined rules
of behavior.
o A "Feeler" makes decisions on the individual case, in a subjective
manner based on what they believe to be right within their own value
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Thinking and Feeling contd…

We are making decisions in the Thinking mode when we:
● Research a product via consumer reports, and buy the best one to
meet our needs
● Do "The Right Thing", whether or not we like it
● Choose not to buy a blue shirt which we like, because we have two
blue shirts
● Establish guidelines to follow for performing tasks
We are making decisions in the Feeling mode when we:
● Decide to buy something because we like it

● Refrain from telling someone something which we feel may upset them
● Decide not to take a job because we don't like the work environment
● Decide to move somewhere to be close to someone we care about
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Judging and Perceiving
Judging and Perceiving preferences, within the context of personality
types, refers to our attitude towards the external world, and how we
live our lives on a day-to-day basis. People with the Judging
preference want things to be neat, orderly and established. The
Perceiving preference wants things to be flexible and spontaneous.
Judgers want things settled, Perceivers want thing open-ended.
We are using Judging when we:
● Make a list of things to do
● Schedule things in advance
● Form and express judgments
● Bring closure to an issue so that we can move on
We are using Perceiving when we:
● Postpone decisions to see what other options are available
● Act spontaneously
● Decide what to do as we do it, rather than forming a plan ahead of
time
● Do things at the last minuteExcellence and Service
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The “Big Five” Personality Theory (McCrae 1992; Smith et al. 2001)
1.Extraversion :Focuses on the comfort level of an individual in their
interactions with others.
For example, an individual’s behaviour may range from being

assertive, outgoing, talkative, open (extraversion) to being timid,
quiet, and reserved (introversion).
2.Agreeableness: An individual’s behaviour towards others while

interacting with them.
For example, the behaviour may range from being warm,

cooperative, and close (high agreeableness) to cold, antagonistic, and
distant (low agreeableness).

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3.Conscientiousness: Extent to which individuals show consistent and

reliable behaviour while working in an organization.
An individual’s style may range from being highly responsible,

dependable, reliable, and consistent (high conscientiousness) to being
unreliable, disorganized, and inconsistent (low conscientiousness);
from performing work in a detailed and structured manner to
performing work in a general and spontaneous way

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The “Big Five” Personality Theory contd...
4.Emotional stability: Ability of an individual to control his or her

emotions at the time of crisis.
Individuals with high stability are more controlled with their

emotions and are calm and self-confident. On the other hand, those
with low emotional stability are more
nervous, depressed, and
insecure in their approach.
5.Openness to experience: Measures the individual’s ability to be open

to any kind of experience that helps him or her to do the job
effectively.
Individuals who are open to experience are more approachable,

creative, and sensitive. However, those who are less open to
experience are conservative in their
Excellence approach and feel uncomfortable
and Service
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Other Personality Traits

1.Authoritarianism :
● It is the degree to which a person believes that status and power

differences are appropriate in an organization
● People high in authoritarianism tend to be autocratic and demanding

with subordinates but are likely to accept orders and directions from
superiors without questions.
● High authoritarian types would not fit well in organizations that

require flexibility and quick change or sensitivity to people and
cooperative behaviour.
● They would fit better in a highly structured organization that values

conformity
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2.Locus of control
● Locus of control refers to an individual’s belief that events are either

within one’s control (Internal Locus of Control) or are determined by
forces beyond one’s control.
● Some people believe that they are the masters of their own fate. Other
people see themselves as pawns of fate, believing that whatever
happens to them in their lives is due to their luck or fate.
● The first type is labeled as internals and the latter has been called
externals.
A PERSON’S PERCEPTION OF THE SOURCE OF HIS OR HER

FATE IS TERMED LOCUS OF CONTROL.

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2.Locus of control contd…

Internal Locus of Control:
(i) A person with a strong internal locus of control has more control over
his own behavior. He believes that he controls events concerning his
own life and his internal traits determine what happens in a given
situation. He believes that he is the master of his own density.
(ii) These people are more active in seeking more information to make
decisions. They are better at retaining the information and are less
satisfied with the amount of information they possess.
(iii) Internals are more active socially.
(iv) Internals prefer skill achievement outcomes.
(v) Internals are more likely to use personally persuasive rewards and
power bases and less likely to use coercion.

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External Locus of Control:
(i) People who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs,
have higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from the work
setting and are less involved on jobs than are internals. They
generally prefer directive management.
(ii) Unlike the internals, these people prefer chance oriented awards.
(iii) A person with a strong ‘external locus of control’ feels that outside
forces are affecting the events in his life and he is at the mercy of
destiny, chance or other people. He believes that everything will
happen by the will of God and nothing or nobody can stop it.
(iv) Unlike, the internals, the externals are more interested in job security
and not in advancement of careers.

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3.Machiavellianism : Deemed to be University
This personality trait of Machiavellianism also known as Mach is named

after Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote in the 16th century on how to
gain and use power.
● A Mach man is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes
that ends can justify means.
● A high Mach man manipulates more, wins more, are persuaded less
and persuade others more than the low machs.
● High Mach people flourish when they interact face to face with others
rather than indirectly.
● These people are successful when the situation has a minimum
number of rules and regulations.
● High Mach man has high self confidence and high self esteem. They
are cool and calculating and have no hesitation using others or taking
advantage of others in order to serve their own goals.
● They are not easily swayed by a sense of friendship, trust or loyalty.
They are specially successful in exploiting structured situations and
vulnerable people. Excellence and Service
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4.Self-esteem :
It is the judgement one makes about one’s own worth.
People with high self-esteem tend to like themselves, have high

expectations for success, and feel confident that they can achieve their
goals.
Those with low self-esteem lack confidence and look to others for praise
and reinforcement.
In so doing, they tend to avoid conflict and conform to expected norms

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5.Risk Taking :
● This refers to a person’s willingness to take risks.

● People with a high propensity for risk make decisions faster and are
willing to take chances.
● Risk-aversive people are more cautious, make decisions more
carefully, and try to minimize risk.
● High-risk managers may make costly decisions, although they may
also enable their organization to respond quickly to fast changing
environments.
● Low-risk managers may also make costly decisions if they respond
too slowly to changing competitive conditions.
● The appropriation of each depends on the organizational situations

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6. Self-monitoring :
● This refers to the degree to which people are sensitive to others and
adapt their behaviour to meet external expectations and situation
needs .
● High self-monitors are similar to actors in that they can assume a

personality to satisfy an audience.
● They are adept at separating their private selves from their public
selves.
● People who are low self-monitors reveal themselves much more

clearly and tend to be themselves regardless of the situation or others’
expectations.
● The high self-monitor may be more flexible in interacting with

different types of people.Excellence and Service
● The intent is to develop flexibility and effectiveness in interacting
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7. Achievement orientated:
● The people with very high achievement orientation strive to do things

in a better way.
● They want to feel that their success or failure is due to their own
actions.
● These people do not like to perform easy tasks where there is no

challenge or tasks with very high amount of risk as the failure rate is
more.
● These people like to do the acts with moderate difficulties, so that

they can have a sense of achievement also and on the other hand the
failure rate is also not very high. and Service
Excellence
Organizational Behavior
(BBA 231)
Unit 2. Learning
MISSION VISION CORE VALUES

CHRIST is a nurturing ground for an individual’s Excellence and Service Faith in God | Moral Uprightness
holistic development to make effective contribution to Love of Fellow Beings
the society in a dynamic environment Social Responsibility | Pursuit of Excellence
CHRIST
Meaning of Learning
● Learning is a relatively permanent change in the frequency of

occurrence of a specific individual behaviour.
● In an organization, a manager wants employees to learn productive

work behaviours, which to a great extent depend upon environmental
factors.
● The manager’s goal, then, is to provide learning experiences in an

environment that will promote employee behaviours desired by the
organization.
● In the work setting, learning can take place in one of the following
ways: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning &
cognitive learning.
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Theories of learning
1. Classical conditioning (Ivan
Pavlov ,Russian Psychologist)
● Classical conditioning is a process by
which individuals learn reflex behaviours.
● A reflex is an involuntary, or an automatic,
response that is not under an individual’s
conscious control.
● In classical conditioning, an
unconditioned stimulus (environmental
event) causes a reflexive response.
● Sometimes a natural environment event,
called a conditioned stimulus, is initially
paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
● Eventually, the conditioned stimulus alone
yields the reflexive behaviour.
Environmental events that precede a
reflexive response control it.

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From the managerial point of view,….
● Classical conditioning usually is not considered applicable to the

work setting.
● Desired employee behaviours typically do not include reflexive

responses that can be changed by using classical conditioning
techniques.
● Instead, managers are interested in the voluntary behaviours of

employees and how these. behaviours can be influenced

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2.Operant Conditioning (involving the modification of behaviour by the

reinforcing or inhibiting effect of its own consequences)
● A process by which individuals learn voluntary behaviour
● A method of learning that employs rewards and
punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior and a consequence
(whether negative or positive) for that behavior
● For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light
is on, they receive a food pellet as a reward. When they press
the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric
shock. As a result, they learn to press the lever when the
green light is on and avoid the red light.

CHRIST
Operant behaviours are of interest to managers

because…
● They can influence or manage such behaviour by changing the results
of these behaviours.
● The crucial aspect of operant conditioning is what happens as a

consequence of the behaviour.
● That is, consequences largely determine the strength and frequency of

operant conditioned behaviours.
● Thus, managers must understand the effects of different consequences

on the task behaviour of employees.

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Video to watch

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3. Cognitive theory (Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist)
● Suggests that the learner is an active participant in the process.
● They come to the table with their own skills, knowledge, memories
and relevant information they’ve learned in the past.
● When learning something new, individuals process and construct their

own understanding of a topic based on their past experiences and
knowledge.
● Cognitive Learning Strategies in corporate world ….

1. Learner-centered approach
2. Bloom’s taxonomy
3. Learning through discovery
4. Creating meaningful experiences for your learners
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3A)Learner-centered approach
● Learning is cumulative and relative to each individual. When we’re

learning, we start with a baseline of knowledge and go from
there. Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist and pioneer of Cognitive
Learning Theory, favored this learner-centered approach to teaching.
He suggested that accommodation, assimilation, and equilibration
are all crucial to learning:
○ Accommodation – how we modify what we already know to take new

information into account;
○ Assimilation – how the new knowledge is arranged in our heads alongside what
we already know;
○ Equilibration – the balance between what we already know and what we’re
currently mastering.

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3B) Bloom’s taxonomy

● Bloom’s taxonomy, named after educational
psychologist Benjamin Bloom, describes six
different levels of cognitive learning in the form
of a hierarchy.
● At its most basic level, the taxonomy describes

the essential abilities needed to recall information
that has been taught.
● While at the highest level it describes a learner’s

ability to take what has been taught, analyze it
and use it to create and evaluate.
● When training within your organization trainers

and Learning and Development Managers should
consider the depth of cognitive learning they need
to achieve from a given course.
● For example, if you’re training new hires to

provide support to customers, it’s likely that
remembering, understanding and applying the
information provided is sufficient
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3C) Learning through discovery
● Active learner involvement is a core feature of cognitive

learning.
● Jerome Bruner, a psychologist who studied cognitive learning in

children, suggested that instead of simply feeding students
information, we should allow them to discover it for
themselves.
● Giving your learners opportunities to complete meaningful

tasks to solidify learning, for example, role-playing customer
service scenarios
● Asking participants to solve real-world challenges your

organization faces during training.
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3D ) Creating meaningful experiences for your

learners
● When trainers make a marked effort to show why a lesson is
meaningful for the learner, there’s a significantly higher chance of it
becoming anchored in the brain alongside what’s already known.
● This means that before diving into a complex topic, trainers should
cover some introductory material or offer some background to the
topic. When learners have the relevant background knowledge, it’s
easier for them to ‘slot in’ new information.
● For your organization, this means:
○ New information should be sequenced carefully so that this knowledge builds on
what your learner already fully understands
○ Prefacing new material with introductory or background information is
important
○ Trainers should emphasize how each element of the session is meaningful to the
job or task your learner is being prepared for.

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Social Learning Theory (by Albert Bandura OC was a Canadian-American psychologist

who was the David Starr Jordan Professor in Psychology at Stanford University.)
● Social (or Observational) Learning Theory stipulates

that people can learn new behaviors by observing
others.
● Earlier learning theories emphasized how people

behave in response to environmental stimuli, such as
physical rewards or punishment.
● In contrast, social learning emphasizes the reciprocal

relationship between social characteristics of the
environment, how they are perceived by individuals,
and how motivated and able a person is to reproduce
behaviors they see happening around them.
● People both influence and are influenced by the

world around them.
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According to Social Learning Theory, people learn by:
• Observing what other people

do
• Considering the apparent
consequences experienced by
those people
• Rehearsing (at first mentally)
what might happen in their
own lives if they followed
the other peoples’ behavior
• Taking action by trying the
behavior themselves
• Comparing their experiences
with what happened to the
other people
• Confirming their belief in the
new behavior
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Principles of learning are;

1.Participation, 2.Repetition, 3. Relevance. 4.Transference 5.Feedback
Participation :
 Learning should permit and encourage active participation of the
learner.
 Participation improves motivation and apparently engages more

senses that reinforce the learning process.
 As a result of participation, people learn more quickly and retain that

learning longer.
For example,
Most people never forget how to ride a bicycle because they actively
participated in the learning process.
--- The learning activities should be experiential rather than just informational.
---The trainers should arrange the physical surroundings to facilitate small
group interaction and promote the sharing of ideas.
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2. Repetition :
 An important principle of the learning is to provide the learner with

the opportunity for practice and repetition.
 To gain the full benefit of training learned behaviors must be

overlearned to ensure smooth performance and minimum of forgetting
at a later date.
 Proficiency in learning and retaining new skills is improved when

individuals visualize themselves performing the new behavior.

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3. Relevance
 Learning is helped when the material to be learned is meaningful.
 The learning should be problem-centered rather than content centered.
 People are motivated to learn when training is immediately relevant to

help them solve a current problem.
 Learning something just because someone says “it is important” is not

as motivating.

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4. Transference
 Because the training occurs in a special environment, an important
question to ask is whether learning will transfer to the actual job
situation.
 Transfer of training occurs when trainees can apply the knowledge

and skills learned in training course to their jobs.
 If the learning in one setting does not transfer to the actual job
situation, the training has failed.
Three transfers training situations are possible

(1) Positive transfer of training when the training activities enhance
performance in the new situation;
(2) Negative transfer of training, when the training activities inhibit
performance in a new situation; and
(3) No observable effect of training.
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5. Feedback
● Feedback gives learners information on their progress.
● Performance feedback is a necessary prerequisite for learning.
● Feedback improves performance not only by helping learners correct their
mistakes but also by providing reinforcement for learning.
● Knowledge of results is a positive reinforcement itself.
● Learning activities have more intrinsic interest if the feedback is available.
● Nevertheless, performance feedback should do more than inform learners
whether they were right or wrong.
● Merely informing the trainees that they were wrong is not as effective as
telling them why they were wrong and how they can avoid making mistakes
in the future.
● In general, knowledge of results is an essential feature of learning, and this
knowledge comes after the learner’s response.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
● The speed with which learning takes place and also how lasting its effects will be is
determined by the timing of reinforcement.
● Thus, a knowledge of the types of schedules of reinforcement is essential to

managers if they are to know how to choose rewards that will have maximum impact
on employee performance.
● There are two approaches :
● A continuous reinforcement schedule rewards desired behavior every time it occurs.

For example, a manager could praise (or pay) employees every time they
perform properly. With the time and resource constraints most managers work under,
this is often difficult, if not impossible. So, most managerial reward strategies operate
on a partial schedule.
● A partial reinforcement schedule rewards desired behavior at specific intervals, not

every time desired behavior is exhibited. Compared to continuous schedules, partial
reinforcement schedules lead to slower learning but stronger retention. Thus, learning
is generally more permanent.
 Four kinds of partial reinforcement schedules can be identified: (1) fixed interval, (2)
fixed ratio, (3) variable interval, and (4) variable ratio
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1.Fixed-Interval Schedule.
● A fixed-interval reinforcement schedule rewards individuals at
specified intervals for their performance, as with a biweekly
paycheck.
● If employees perform even minimally, they are paid.
● This technique generally does not result in high or sustained levels of

performance because employees know that marginal performance
usually leads to the same level of reward as high performance.
● Thus, there is little incentive for high effort and performance. Also,
when rewards are withheld or suspended, extinction of desired
behavior occurs quickly.
● Many of the recent job redesign efforts in organizations were

prompted by recognition of the need for alternate strategies of
motivation rather than paying people
Excellence on fixed-interval schedules.
and Service
CHRIST
2.Fixed-Ratio Schedule.
● Reward is administered only upon the completion of a given number
of desired responses.
● Rewards are tied to performance in a ratio of rewards to results.
● Example : a piece-rate pay system, whereby employees are paid for

each unit of output they produce. Under this system, performance
rapidly reaches high levels.
● The response level here is significantly higher than that obtained

under any of the interval (time-based) schedules.
● On the negative side, however, performance declines sharply when

the rewards are withheld, as with fixed-interval schedules.

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3. Variable-Interval Schedule.
● Both variable-interval and variable-ratio reinforcements are administered at
random times that cannot be predicted by the employee.
● The employee is generally not aware of when the next evaluation and reward
period will be.
● Under a variable-interval schedule, rewards are administered at intervals of

time that are based on an average.
● For example, an employee may know that on the average her performance

is evaluated and rewarded about once a month, but she does not know when
this event will occur. She does know, however, that it will occur sometime
during the interval of a month.
● Under this schedule, effort and performance will generally be high and fairly
stable over time because employees never know when the evaluation will
take place.
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4. Variable-Ratio Schedule.
● Rewards are administered only after an employee has performed the
desired behavior a number of times, with the number changing from
the administration of one reward to the next but averaging over time
to a certain ratio of number of performances to rewards.
● For example, a manager may determine that a salesperson will

receive a bonus for every 15th new account sold. However, instead of
administering the bonus every 15th sale (as in a fixed-interval
schedule), the manager may vary the number of sales that is necessary
for the bonus, from perhaps 10 sales for the first bonus to 20 for the
second. On the average, however, the 15:1 ratio prevails. If the
employee understands the parameters, then the “safe” level of sales,
or the level of sales most likely to result in a bonus, is in excess of 15.
Consequently, the variable-ratio schedule typically leads to high and
stable performance. Moreover, extinction of desired behavior is slow.
CHRIST
Which of these four schedules of reinforcement is superior?

● The necessity for arranging appropriate reinforcement contingencies
is dramatically illustrated by several studies in which rewards were
shifted from a response-contingent (ratio) to a time-contingent
(interval) basis.
● During the period in which rewards were made conditional upon
occurrence of the desired behavior, the appropriate response patterns
were exhibited at a consistently high level.
● When the same rewards were given based on time and independent of
the worker’s behavior, there was a marked drop in the desired
behavior.
● The reinstatements of the performance-contingent reward schedule
promptly restored the high level of responsiveness.
● In other words, the performance-contingent (or ratio) reward

schedules generally lead to better performance than the time-
contingent (or interval) schedules, regardless of whether such

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Organisational Behaviour

Unit 2. Personality & Learning

MISSION VISION CORE VALUES

Excellence and Service

Excellence and Service

Extraversion and Introversion

Excellence and Service

Thinking and Feeling contd…

We are making decisions in the Feeling mode when we:

● Decide to buy something because we like it

For example, an individual’s behaviour may range from being

2.Agreeableness: An individual’s behaviour towards others while

For example, the behaviour may range from being warm,

Excellence and Service

3.Conscientiousness: Extent to which individuals show consistent and

An individual’s style may range from being highly responsible,

Excellence and Service

The “Big Five” Personality Theory contd...

4.Emotional stability: Ability of an individual to control his or her

Individuals with high stability are more controlled with their

5.Openness to experience: Measures the individual’s ability to be open

Individuals who are open to experience are more approachable,

Other Personality Traits

● It is the degree to which a person believes that status and power

● People high in authoritarianism tend to be autocratic and demanding

● High authoritarian types would not fit well in organizations that

● They would fit better in a highly structured organization that values

● Locus of control refers to an individual’s belief that events are either

A PERSON’S PERCEPTION OF THE SOURCE OF HIS OR HER

Excellence and Service

2.Locus of control contd…

Excellence and Service

External Locus of Control:

Excellence and Service

This personality trait of Machiavellianism also known as Mach is named

It is the judgement one makes about one’s own worth.

People with high self-esteem tend to like themselves, have high

In so doing, they tend to avoid conflict and conform to expected norms

Excellence and Service

● This refers to a person’s willingness to take risks.

Excellence and Service

● High self-monitors are similar to actors in that they can assume a

● People who are low self-monitors reveal themselves much more

● The high self-monitor may be more flexible in interacting with

● The people with very high achievement orientation strive to do things

● These people do not like to perform easy tasks where there is no

● These people like to do the acts with moderate difficulties, so that

MISSION VISION CORE VALUES

● Learning is a relatively permanent change in the frequency of

● In an organization, a manager wants employees to learn productive

● The manager’s goal, then, is to provide learning experiences in an

Excellence and Service

From the managerial point of view,….

● Classical conditioning usually is not considered applicable to the

● Desired employee behaviours typically do not include reflexive

● Instead, managers are interested in the voluntary behaviours of

Excellence and Service

2.Operant Conditioning (involving the modification of behaviour by the

Excellence and Service

Operant behaviours are of interest to managers

● The crucial aspect of operant conditioning is what happens as a

● That is, consequences largely determine the strength and frequency of

● Thus, managers must understand the effects of different consequences