Mitosis and Meiosis

CELL DIVISION
Essental Idea: Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically identical daughter nuclei.
You should know: You should be able to:

✔Mitosis is division of the nucleus into
two genetically identical daughter nuclei. ✔ Identify the phases of mitosis in cells viewd with a
✔ Chromosomes condense by microscope.
supercoiling during mitosis.
✔ Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is ✔ Determine of a mitotic index from a microgragh.
different in plant and animal cells.
✔ Interphase is a very active phase of the ✔ Correlate smoking and incidence of cancers.
cell cycle with many processes occurring
in the nucleus and cytoplasm. ✔ Explain the discovery of cyclins.
✔ Cyclins are involved in the control of
the cell cycle.
✔ Mutagens, oncogens, and metastasis
are involved in the development of
primary and secondary tumours.
Interphase
• The cell cycle is the sequence of events
between one cell division and the next.
• Phases of the cell cycle: Interphase and
cell division.
• Interphase is a very active phase of the
cell cycle with many processes
occurring in the nucleus and cytoplasm.
In this phase many metabolic reactions
occur.
Taken from: https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_Biology_for_Non-Majors_I_%28Lumen%29/07%3A_Cell_Division/7.04%3A_Cell_Cycle_Checkpoints

Taken from: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/mhccbiology112/chapter/10-3-control-of-the-cell-cycle/

Supercoiling of chromosomes
• Chromosomes condense by supercoiling during mitosis.
• During mitosis, the two chromatids that make up each
chromosome must be separated and moved to opposite
poles of the cell.
• Human nuclei are on average less than 5 μm in diameter
but DNA molecules in them are more than 50,000 μm
long. It is essential to package chromosomes into much
shorter structures.
• This process is known as condensation of chromosomes,
and it occurs during the first stage of mitosis.
• Supercoiling: repeatedly coiling DNA molecule to make
the chromosome shorter and wider.
• Proteins called histones that are associated with DNA in
eukaryote chromosomes help with supercoiling and
enzymes are also involved.
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
• Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plant and
animal cells.
• In animal cells the plasma membrane is pulled inward
around the equator of the cell to form a cleavage furrow.
This is accomplished using a ring of contractile protein
immediately inside the plasma membrane at the equator.
• The proteins are actin and myosin and are similar to proteins
that cause contraction in muscle.
• In plant cells vesicles are moved to the equator where they
fuse to form tubular structures across the equator. The next
stage is for pectin and other substances to be brought in
vesicles and deposited by exocytosis between the two new
membranes.
• This forms the middle lamella that will link the new cell walls.
• Both of the daughter cells then bring cellulose to the equator
and deposit it by exocytosis adjacent to the middle lamella.
As a result, each cell builds its own cell wall adjacent to the
equator.
The role of mitosis

• Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically identical
daughter nuclei.
• Before mitosis can occur, all of the DNA in the nucleus must be
replicated.
• Each chromosome is converted from a single DNA molecule into two
identical DNA molecules, called chromatids. During mitosis, one of
these chromatids passes to each daughter nucleus.
• Mitosis is involved whenever cells with genetically identical nuclei are
required in eukaryotes: during embryonic development, growth,
tissue repair, and asexual reproduction.
The mitotic index

Cyclins and the control of the cell cycle

• A group of proteins called cyclins is used to
ensure that tasks are performed at the
correct time and that the cell only moves on
to the next stage of the cycle when it is
appropriate.
• Cyclins bind to enzymes called cyclin-
dependent kinases.
• Kinases become active and attach
phosphate groups to other proteins in the
cell. The attachment of phosphate triggers
the other proteins to become active and
carry out tasks specific to one of the phases
of the cell cycle.
• Cyclins control the cell cycle and ensure that
cells divide when new cells are needed, but
not at other times.
Tumor formation and cancer

• Mutagens, oncogenes, and metastasis are involved in
the development of primary and secondary tumors.
• Tumors are abnormal groups of cells that develop at
any stage of life in any part of the body
• Tumors can be benign and malignant.
• Diseases due to malignant tumors are commonly
known as cancer and have diverse causes.
• Chemicals and agents that cause cancer are known as
carcinogens.
• All mutagens are carcinogenic.
• Mutations are random changes to the base sequence
of genes. The few genes that can become cancer-
causing after mutating are known as oncogenes.
• In normal cells oncogenes are involved in the control
of the cell cycle and cell division.
• Metastasis is the movement of cells from a primary
tumor to set up secondary tumors in other parts of
the body
Tumor formation and cancer

Essental Idea: One diploid nucleus divide by meiosis to produce four haplod nuclei.
You should know: You should be able to:

✔One diplod nucleus divides by meiosis
to produce four haplod nuclei. ✔ Draw diagrams to show the stages of meiosis resuting
✔The halving of the chromosome in th e formation of four haploid cells.
number allows a sexual life cycle with
fusion of gametes. ✔ Explain how non-disjunction can cause Down
✔DNA is replicated before meiosis so syndrome and other chromosome abnormalities.
that all chromosomes consist of two sister
chromatids. ✔ Describe method used to obtain cells for karyotype
✔The early stages of meiosis involve analysis and the associated risks.
pairing of homologous chromosomes and
crossing over folloed by condensation.
✔Crossing over and random orientation
promotes genetic variation.
MEIOSIS
• In meiosis the nucleus divides twice.
• The two divisions are known as meiosis I
and meiosis II.
• The nucleus that undergoes the first division
of meiosis is diploid.
• Chromosomes of the same type are known
as homologous chromosomes.
• Each of the four nuclei produced by meiosis
has just one chromosome of each type, they
are haploid.
• Meiosis is known as a reduction division.
MEIOSIS
• The halving of the chromosome number allows a
sexual life cycle with fusion of gametes.
• In sexual life cycle there are differences between the
chromosomes of the offspring and the parents, so
there is genetic diversity.
• In eukaryotic organism, sexual reproduction involves
the process of fertilization.
• Fertilization is the union of sex cells, or gametes,
usually from two different parents.
• Fertilization doubles the number of chromosomes
number every generation.
• Meiosis happens during the process of creating the
gametes.
Replication of DNA before meiosis
• DNA is replicated before meiosis so that

all chromosomes consist of two sister
chromatids.
• During the early stages of meiosis the
chromosomes gradually shorten by
supercoiling.
• We might expect the DNA to be
replicated again between the first and
the second division of meiosis, but it
does not happen.
Bivalents formation and crossing over
• The early stages of meiosis involve pairing of

homologous chromosomes and crossing over
followed by condensation.
• Homologous chromosomes pair up with each
other. A pair of homologous chromosomes is
bivalent, and the pairing process is sometimes
called synapsis.
• After synapsis, crossing over takes place.
• Crossing over occurs at random positions
anywhere along the chromosomes.
Random orientation of bivalents

Meiosis and genetic variation
• Crossing over and random orientation promotes

genetic variation.
• Every gamete produced by a parent has a new
combination of alleles.
• Meiosis is a source of endless genetic variation.
• Humans have two copies of each gene.
• Each of the two alleles has an equal chance of
being passed on in a gamete.

Mitosis and Meiosis

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CELL DIVISION

You should know: You should be able to:

Taken from: https://bio.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_Biology_for_Non-Majors_I_%28Lumen%29/07%3A_Cell_Division/7.04%3A_Cell_Cycle_Checkpoints

Taken from: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/mhccbiology112/chapter/10-3-control-of-the-cell-cycle/

The role of mitosis

The mitotic index

Cyclins and the control of the cell cycle

Tumor formation and cancer

Tumor formation and cancer

You should know: You should be able to:

Replication of DNA before meiosis

• DNA is replicated before meiosis so that

Bivalents formation and crossing over

• The early stages of meiosis involve pairing of

Random orientation of bivalents

Meiosis and genetic variation

• Crossing over and random orientation promotes

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