Cells
exchange of materials.
have distinct phases of growth,
reproduction, and normal functions.
THE CELL CYCLE HAS FOUR MAIN
STAGES.
The cell cycle is a regular pattern of
growth, DNA replication, and cell division.
• The main stages of the cell cycle are
gap 1, synthesis, gap 2, and mitosis.
• Gap 1 (G1): cell growth and normal
functions
• Mitosis occurs only if the cell is large
enough and the DNA undamaged.
• DNA synthesis (S): copies DNA
• Gap 2 (G2): additional growth
• Mitosis (M): includes division of the cell
nucleus (mitosis) and division of the cell
cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
CELLS DIVIDE AT DIFFERENT RATES.
The rate of cell division varies with the
need for those types of cells.
Some cells are unlikely to divide (G0).
Cell size is limited
Volume increases faster than surface area.
Surface area must allow for adequate
• Cell growth is coordinated with
division.
• Cells that must be large have unique
shapes.
Mitosis & Cytokinesis
CELLS DIVIDE DURING MITOSIS AND
CYTOKINESIS.
Chromosomes condense at the start of
mitosis.
-DNA wraps around proteins (histones)
that condense it.
• DNA plus proteins is called
chromatin.
• One half of a duplicated
chromosome is a chromatid.
• Sister chromatids are held together
at the centromere.
• Telomeres protect DNA and do not
include genes.
Mitosis and cytokinesis produce two
genetically identical daughter cells.
• Interphase prepares the cell to
divide.
• During interphase, the DNA is
duplicated.
Mitosis divides the cell’s nucleus in four
phases.
• During prophase, chromosomes
condense and spindle fibers
form.
• During anaphase, sister
chromatids separate to opposite
sides of the cell.
• During telophase, the new nuclei
form and chromosomes begin to
uncoil.
Cytokinesis differs in animal and plant
cells.
• In animal cells, the membrane
pinches closed.
• In plant cells, a cell plate forms.
Regulation of the Cell Cycle
Cell cycle regulation is necessary for
healthy growth.
Internal and external factors regulate cell
division.
• External factors include physical
and chemical signals.
• Growth factors are proteins that
stimulate cell division.
• Most mammal cells form a single
layer in a culture dish and stop
dividing once they touch other cells.
• Two of the most important internal
factors are kinases and cyclins.
• External factors trigger internal
factors, which affect the cell cycle.
Apoptosis is programmed cell death.
• a normal feature of healthy
organisms
• caused by a cell’s production of
self-destructive enzymes
• occurs in development of infants
Cell division is uncontrolled in cancer.
• Cancer cells form disorganized
clumps called tumors.
• Benign tumors remain clustered
and can be removed.
• Malignant tumors metastasize,
or break away, and can form
more tumors.
• Cancer cells do not carry out
necessary functions.
• Cancer cells come from normal
cells with damage to genes
involved in cell-cycle regulation.
• Carcinogens are substances
known to promote cancer.
• Standard cancer treatments
typically kill both cancerous and
healthy cells.
Asexual Reproduction
Many organisms reproduce by cell
division.
Binary fission is similar in function
to mitosis.
Asexual reproduction is the creation of
offspring from a single parent.
-Binary fission produces two
daughter cells genetically Identical
to the parent cell.
-Binary fission occurs in
Prokaryotes.
Environment determines what form of
reproduction is most advantageous.
-Asexual reproduction is an advantage
in consistently favorable conditions.
-Sexual reproduction is an advantage in
changing conditions.
Some eukaryotes reproduce through
mitosis.
• Budding forms a new organism from
a small projection growing on the
surface of the parent.
• Fragmentation is the splitting of the
parent into pieces that each grow
into a new organism.
• Vegetative reproduction forms a new
plant from the modification of a
stem or underground structure on
the parent plant.
KEY CONCEPT
Cells work together to carry out
complex functions.
Multicellular Life
Multicellular organisms depend on
interactions among different cell types.
• Tissues are groups of cells that
perform a similar function.
• Organs are groups of tissues that
perform a specific or related
function.
• Organ systems are groups of organs
that carry out similar functions.
Specialized cells perform specific
functions.
• Cells develop into their mature
forms through the process of cell
differentiation.
• Cells differ because different
combinations of genes are
expressed.
• A cell’s location in an embryo helps
determine how it will differentiate.
Stem cells are unique body cells.
Stem cells have the ability to
• divide and renew themselves
• remain undifferentiated in form
• develop into a variety of specialized
cell types
Stem cells are classified into three
types.
• totipotent, or growing into any other
cell type
• pluripotent, or growing into any cell
type but a totipotent cell
• multipotent, or growing into cells of
a closely related cell family
Stem cells come from adults and
embryos.
• Adult stem cells can be hard to
isolate and grow.
• The use of adult stem cells may
prevent transplant rejection.
• The use of embryonic stem cells
raises ethical issues
• Embryonic stem cells are
pluripotent and can be grown
indefinitely in culture.
The use of stem cells offers many
currently realized and potential
benefits.
• Stem cells are used to treat
leukemia and lymphoma.
• Stem cells may cure disease or
replace damaged organs.
• Stem cells may revolutionize the
drug development process.
 Cells: Eukaryotic Cells:

The Basic Units of Life • Have a nucleus

• Have a membrane – covered
The Cell Theory organelles
• All organisms are made of cells. • Have linear DNA
• The cell is the basic unit of life inall
living things.
• All cells come from existing cells. Organelles

THIS IS IMPORTANT BECAUSE IT Organelles are structures that enable

SHOWS the cell to live, grow and reproduce.

THAT ALL LIVING THINGS SHARE A

SIMILAR STRUCTURE Cell Membrane
Outer layer of cell

Two Types of Cells Allows nutrients into the cell and

wastes outside of the cell
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm a jelly-like fluid contained in
the cell that holds the organelles.
The Nucleus
• The control center of the cell
• Contains the Cell’s DNA
All cells, whether they are prokaryotic • “Mayor’s office”
or eukaryotic, have some common Mitochondria
features
• Power center of cell
• Provides the energy the cell needs
Organelles to move, divide, etc.
• “Electric company of the cell”
Organelles are structures that enable
the cell to live, grow and reproduce. Ribosomes
• Site where proteins are made
• Cell parts are made of proteins
Two Types of Cells • “Factories of the cell”
Prokaryotic Cells: Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Have no membrane covered nucleus • Transportation system of cell
• Have no membrane - covered • Rough ER- ribosome's attached
organelles • Smooth ER- no ribosome's
• Have circular DNA • “Roadways of the cell”
• Are bacteria
Golgi Complex CELL MODIFICATION
• Packaging house of cell Cell Modification
• Packages, processes, and ships out
• Cell modification is a process that
the stuff the cell makes
occurs
• “UPS of the cell”
• after cell division where the newly
Lysosomes formed cells are structurally
modified so that they can perform
• Digests food particles and cell
their function efficiently and
parts
effectively.
• “Garbage men”
• Multicellular organisms begin as
• Protects cell by digesting foreign
just one
invaders
• single cell—a fertilized egg. Growing
• “Police men
from
Vacuole • one single cell to trillions of
specialized cells that perform
• Stores water, food & wastes
different functions is a process that
• Vacuole is largest organelle in plant
happens with the regulation of DNA
cell
and RNA.
Cell Wall
Specialized Plant Cells
• Found only in plant cells
Root Cells
• Protects and supports the cell
Root cells are specialized plant cells
Chloroplasts
that absorb dissolved minerals and
• Found only in plant cells water from the ground. Root cells grow
• Contains chlorophyll (makes plants in long lengths called root hairs in
green) order to increase the surface area of
• Where photosynthesis takes place the root system. This also helps anchor
the plant.
Plant or Animal Cell?
Xylem and Phloem Cells
Found in Plant and Animal cells:
• Xylem cells transport water from
• Nucleus the roots in the upward direction.
• Golgi Complex • Phloem cells transport nutrients in
• Mitochondrion both directions to reach all parts of
• Lysosomes the plant.
• Endoplasmic
• Reticulum Guard Cells
• Cell Membrane Along the bottom of the leaf, guard cells
• Ribosomes open and close to allow the transfer of
• Vacuoles gases with the atmosphere as well as
Found only in Plant Cells: the transpiration of water.

• Chloroplasts
• Cell Wall
Specialized Animal Cells Stereocilia
Red Blood Cells Stereocilia form single "finger-like"
projections that may be branched, and
Red blood cells are specialized cells
have more of the characteristics of the
found in animals that transport oxygen
cellular membrane proper. Like
throughout the body. Since transport is
microvilli, they contain actin filaments
their primary function, they do not need
and lack an axoneme, distinguishing
a nucleus.
them from cilia.
Muscle Cells
Muscle cells are long, fibrous cells that
have the ability to contract. They allow
animals to move and allow their organs
to function in circulation as well as
digestion.
Epithelial Cells
Epithelial cells are the cells that line
the outside, as well as the inside, of
your body. They are the cells that make
up your skin. Skin epithelium is actually
located just below the surface of your
skin. The epithelial cells are responsible
for making new cells.
Apical Modifications
Cilia
Cilia are membrane-covered extensions
of the entire apical surface. They beat in
waves, often moving a surface coat of
mucus and trapped materials.
Flagella
Flagella are also concerned with
movement. Spermatozoa, derived from
seminiferous epithelia, are the only
flagellated human cells.
Microvilli
Microvilli are plasma membrane-
covered extensions of the cell surface.
Their cores are composed of parallel
actin microfilaments; these are
anchored in a dense mat of filaments in
the apical cytoplasm called the terminal
web.