LECTURE \ VELEZ COLLEGE \ MT2
CELLULAR REPRODUCTIONT TITLE o New chromosome attach itself to the plasma
OUTLINE
I OVERVIEW: CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
Prokaryotic Cell reproduction
A Eukaryotic Cell reproduction
II 2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
A Mitosis
B Meiosis
III SPERMATOGENESIS VS OOGENIS
A. Fertilization
OVERVIEW: CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
• 2 primary types of cells
Prokaryotic cells
• No true nucleus, DNA is coiled up in a region called the
nucleoid
• DNA is found in the cytoplasm and not enclosed within
the nuclear membrane
• Found in single celled organisms
o Ribosomes – where proteins are made are the
only organelle in the prokaryotic cells
Eg. Bacteria
Eukaryotic cells
• They have a true nucleus found in the membrane and
separated from other cellular structure
• Don’t have define organelles aside from the ribosomes
• Larger than prokaryotic cells
• Found in multi cellular organisms
• Contain other organelles aside from the nucleus
Eg. Cells in plants, animal, fungus
ORGANELLE
• is a structure within the cytoplasm that performs
specific a specific job in the cell
o Mitochondria – provides energy to the cell
o Vacuoles – store substances in the cells
• Organelles allow eukaryotic cells to carry out more
functions compared to your prokaryotic cells
• Allowed eukaryotic cells to have greater cell specificity
than prokaryotic cells
PROKARYOTIC CELL REPRODUCTION
• Reproduce by a process called binary fission
o The single-celled DNA molecule replicates and the
original cell is divided into 2 identical daughter
cells
• The DNA in such cells is contained in a single circular
chromosome called plasmids within the cytoplasm
• The reproductive process starts with the replication of
the chromosome
o
membrane and the 2 chromosomes migrate to the
opposite ends of the cell
o Plasma membrane grows inward until it closes to
separate the cell into 2 compartments; each with
the full complement of genetic material
• The cell then fissions at the center, forming two new
daughter cells
Binary fission is somehow like mitosis
• same start and end but different process in between
EUKARYOTIC CELL REPRODUCTION
• Eukaryotes grow and produce called mitosis
• Life of eukaryotic cells is characterized by a cell cycle
with two major phases
o Interphase
o Cell division
▪ Also reproduce asexually through budding,
regeneration and parthenogenesis
• Eukaryotic cell have more DNA thus the process is
more complicated compared to the prokaryotic cell
reproduction
Interphase
• Cell takes in nutrients, grows and duplicates its
chromosomes
Cell division phase
• The nucleus divides in a process called mitosis and
then the divided nuclei are established in separate
cells in a process called cytokinesis
2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELLULAR
REPRODUCTION
Mitosis
• A process that creates a nearly exact copy of the
original cell.
o Somatic cells which include nearly all human
cells are created by this process
• Division of somatic cells
• Process by which cells reproduce themselves
creating 2 daughter cells, genetically identical to one
another
Examples: when wound heals, growth of nails, growth of hair
Meiosis
• Different form of reproduction that leads to the
production of germ cells or sex cells
• Special type of division that occur only in gametic
cells
These processes are responsible for creating two different types
of cells
MITOSIS
• A eukaryotic cell nucleus splits in 2, followed by a
division of the parent cell into 2 daughter cells
• Mitosis means thread, refers to the threadlike
appearance of chromosomes as the cell prepares to
divide
 LEC 4 – CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

Mitosis is divided into 5 phases

o Interphase – cell grows and makes a copy of its
DNA
o Prophase – condensed down into chromosomes
(does not happen in prokaryotic cells) • Average mammalian cell cycle lasts about 17-18 hours
o Metaphase – chromosomes a line in the middle and is the transition of a cell from one interphase
o Anaphase – pulled apart through cell division and back to interphase
o Telophase – nuclear membrane starts to reform • Cell cycle is divided into 4 major stages
around the 2 nuclei, appearance of the cleavage • First 3 stages: G1, synthesis and G2 phase
furrow is seen • 4th stage: mitotic phase – very important phase
• Cytokinesis then follows, the furrow pinched together • Cells are metabolically active during G1 phase and
now the 2 new cells are formed when protein synthesis takes place
BINARY FISSION vs MITOSIS • A cell might be permanently arrested in this stage
Binary Fission Mitosis known as gap zero phase, if it does not undergo
DNA is uncondensed Chromosomes further division
DNA moves to poles Spindles: generated by • Final step in the cell cycle is mitosis which lasts for 1-2
centrioles to pull apart the hours in mammalian cells
chromosomes PROPHASE
Not nearly as organized
Similarities
• Chromosomes condense into x-
Both DNA copied and cell divides
shaped structures that can be
INTERPHASE easily seen under a microscope
o Each chromosome is
• DNA in the cell is copied in composed of 2 sister
preparation for cell chromatids containing
division identical genetic information
o Results in 2 • The chromosomes pair up so that
identical false sets both copies of chromosome 1 are together so are
of chromosomes chromosome 2
• Outside of the nucleus • At the end of prophase the membrane around the
are 2 centrosomes, these nucleus in the cell dissolves away releasing the
structures are critical for the chromosomes
process of cell division • The mitotic spindle(contains microtubules and other
• During interphase, microtubules extend from these proteins), extends across the cell between the
centrosomes centrioles as they move to opposite poles of the cell
G1 Phase o Chromosomes are at their greatest elongation and
• Also called the first gap phase, the cell grows are not visible as discreet structures under the
physically larger, copies organelles, and makes the light microscope during interphase
molecular building blocks it will need in the later steps o But during prophase chromosomes begin to coil
o Longest and lasts up to 9 hours thus becomes more condensed and becomes
S phase visible as discreet structures
• Cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in its o Nuclei are visible early during prophase but
nucleus. It also duplicates a microtubule-organizing disappear as the stage progresses
structure called the centrosome. The centrosomes help PROMETAPHASE
separate DNA during mitosis phase • A short period between prophase
o Lasts for 5 hours in mammalian cells and metaphase during which the
o Some DNA replicate early others later nuclear membrane disappears
G2 phase and the spindle fibers begin to
• Cell grows more, makes proteins and organelles and appear
begins to reorganize its contents in preparation for • Chromosomes attach to the
mitosis. G2 phase ends when mitosis begins. spindle fibers at their
o Lasts for 3 hours kinetochores
G1, S, and G2 phases are known as interphase
• inter means between, which means interphase begins
between one mitotic phase and the next

SABAL AUDREY, OCLADINA ZHAM 2D

 LEC 4 – CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
METAPHASE
• The mitotic spindle is completed
• Chromosomes line up neatly end to
end along the centre(equator) of the
cell
• The centrioles are now at opposite
poles of the cell with the mitotic spindle fibers extending
from them
o Chromosomes reach their maximum state of
contraction during this phase
o It is metaphase chromosomes that are traditionally
studied in cytogenetics
ANAPHASE
• Centromere is divided longitudinally
• Sister chromatids are then pulled apart
by the mitotic spindle which pulls one
chromatic to one pole and the other
chromatids to the opposite pole
TELOPHASE
• Chromosomes uncoil and become
indistinguishable again
• Nuclei reform and the nuclear
membrane is reconstructed
• At each pole of the cell a full set of
chromosomes gather together
• A membrane forms around each set of chromosomes
to create 2 new nuclei
• The single cell the pinches in the middle to form 2
separate daughter cells each containing a full set of
chromosomes within the nucleus
o This process is known as cytokinesis
o Usually followed by cytokinesis or cytoplasmic
division
The products of mitosis are 2 genetically identical daughter
cells, each of which contains the complete set of genetic
material that was present in the parent cell
CYTOKINESIS
• The cytoplasm of the cell is split in 2 making 2 new cells
• Begins just as mitosis is ending with a little overlap
• Takes place differently in animal and plant cell
MEIOSIS
• Production of gametes- sex cells/sperm and eggs
o Takes place only in the ovaries and testes, a
process involving one duplication of the DNA and
2 cell division namely meiosis 1 (reductional
division) and 2 (equational division) which reduces
the number of chromosomes from the diploid
number: 46 (one with 2 sets of chromosomes) to
haploid: 23 (one with a single chromosome)
• Its goal is to make daughter cells with exactly half as
many chromosomes as the starting cell
o Each gamete produce contains only 1 copy of
each chromosome
o In humans the haploid cells made in meiosis are
sperm and egg, when they join in fertilization it
restores the diploid number in the zygote
• It takes place in the gonads of animal cells
• Meiosis in humans is a division process that takes a
diploid cell- to haploid cells
• in fertilization the 2-haploid seta of chromosomes form
a complete diploid set; a new genome
SABAL AUDREY, OCLADINA ZHAM 2D
PHASE OF MEIOSIS
• Meiosis is a lot like mitosis
• It still needs to separate sister chromatids (the 2 halves
of a duplicated chromosomes) as in mitosis
• But it must also separate homologous chromosomes,
the similar but non identical chromosomes pair an
organism receives from its 2 parents
o In each round of division cells undergo 4 stages
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase
• Homologues pairs separate during a first round of cell
division called meiosis I
• Sister chromatids separate during a second round,
called meiosis II
• Since cell division occurs twice during meiosis, one
starting cell can produce 4 gametes
PROPHASE I
o before entering meiosis I a cell must first go
through interphase as in mitosis the cell grows in
G1 phase copies all its chromosomes during s
phase and prepares for division during the G2
phase
• During prophase I in meiosis I they also pair up. Each
chromosome carefully aligns with its homologue
partner (also called bivalent chromosomes) so that the
2 match up at corresponding positions along their full
length
• During synapsis there is an exchange of genetic
material between homologous chromosomes
Crossing over
• Letters A,B and C represent genes found at particular
spots on the chromosomes
• DNA is broken at the same spot on each homologue
between genes B and C, and reconnected in a
crisscross pattern so that the homologue exchange
part of the DNA
• At the end of prophase I instead of having 2 capital
letters AA and 2 small letters aa they will now carry a
capital A and a small a allele in both chromosomes
o Its helped along by a
protein structure called the
synaptonemal complex
that holds the homologues
together
o The point where cross-
overs occurs is called the
chiasma(plural:
chiasmata)
o Bivalents have 2 chromosomes and 4 chromatids
Prophase I is further specified by subdividing into 5
recognizable stages
• Leptonema: Thin thread stage. The chromosomes are
long and slender with many bead like structure called
chromomere
 LEC 4 – CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
o in leptotene there are 46 chromosomes each
comprised of 2 chromatids. The chromosomes
begin to condense but are not yet visible by light
microscopy
o once leptotene takes place the cell is commited to
meiosis
• Zygonema: stage where homologous chromosomes
pair to form bivalent or tetrad. The pairing is called
synapsis. Synaptonemal complex id formed
o Appear as long threadlike structure pair locust for
locust
o Can be seen with electron microscopy
o The zygonema complex is necessary for the
phenomenon of crossing over that will take place
in prophase I
• Pachynema: stage where most chromosomes appear
as thick threads. The bivalents due to coiling and
chromatid break occur
o Synapses is complete, chromosomes continue to
condense now appear as thicker threads
o The paired homologues from structures called
bivalents sometimes tetrads because they are
composed of 4 chromatids
o Crossing over takes place during pachytene
segments of DNA are exchanged between non
sister chromatids of the bivalence
o The result of a crossover is a reshuffling of genetic
material between homologues creating new
combination of genes in the daughter cells
• Diplonema: longitudinal separation of bivalents
o In diplotene chromosomes continue to shorten
and thicken and the homologues chromosomes
begin to repel each other, this repulsion continues
until the homologous chromosomes are held
together only in points of crossing over took place
o These point are referred to as chiasmata, in males
the sex vesicle disappears and the xy
chromosomes associate end to end
• Diakinesis: there is maximal contraction of bivalents
showing a unique configuration due to repulsion of
bivalents
o Bivalents are distributed throughout the nucleus
METAPHASE I
o After crossing over the spindle begins to capture
chromosomes and move them in the center of the
cell/metaphase plate
• Homologue pairs – not individual chromosomes, line
up at the metaphase plate for separation
• Each chromosome attaches to microtubules from just
one pole of the spindle, and the two homologues of a
pair bind to microtubules from opposite poles
• In an organism with 2 sets of chromosomes, there are
4 ways in which the chromosomes can be arranged
resulting in differences in chromosomal distribution in
daughter cells after meiosis I
o 50/50 chance that the daughter cells get either the
mother’s or the father’s homologue
o Characterized by the disappearance of the nuclear
membrane and the formation of the meiotic
spindle
SABAL AUDREY, OCLADINA ZHAM 2D
ANAPHASE I
• Homologues chromosomes separate
• The centromeres of each bivalent separate and
migrate to opposite poles unlike mitosis, the
centromeres do not split and the sister chromatids
remain paired in anaphase I
TELOPHASE I AND CYTOKINES
o In telophase the 2 haploid sets of chromosomes reach
opposite poles and the cytoplasm divides
o A nuclear membrane forms around each set of new
chromosomes than results in 2 cells containing 23
chromosomes each comprised of 2 chromatids
• The homologues of bivalent arrive at opposite poles of
the cell
• A new nuclear membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes
• Cytokines then divides the cell into 2 daughter cells
• Each of the 2 daughter cells is now haploid
RECAP
MEIOSIS II
• Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without copying
their DNA
• Meiosis II is a shorter and simpler process compared
to Meiosis I
o Resembles mitosis more than meiosis I
• Meiosis 2 begins with 2 haploid (n=2) cells and end
with 4 haploid (n=2) cells
o The four meiocytes are genetically different than
one another
PROPHASE II
• Spindle fibers reform and attach to centromeres
METAPHASE II
• Chromosomes align on the metaphase plate in
preparation for centromeres to divide in the next phase
ANAPHASE II
• Chromosomes divide at the centromeres and the
resulting chromosomes each with one chromatid move
towards opposite poles of the cell
TELOPHASE II AND CYTOKINES
• Nuclear membrane form around each set of
chromosomes. Four haploid nuclei are formed in
telophase II. Division of the cytoplasm during cytokines
results in four haploid cells
o These 4 cells are not identical as random
arrangement of bivalence and crossing over in
 LEC 4 – CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
meiosis I leads to different genetic composition of
these cells
• In humans’ meiosis produces genetically different
haploid daughter cells each with 23 chromosomes that
consists of one chromatid
• These haploid cells become unfertilized eggs in
females and sperms in males
o The genetic differences ensure that siblings of the
same parents are never entirely genetically
identical
RECAP
HOW MEIOSIS MIXES AND MATCHES GENES
Crossing over: the points where homologues cross over and
exchange of genetic material are chosen more or less at
random, and they will be different in each cell that goes through
meiosis. If meiosis happens many time as in humans,
crossovers will happen at different points.
Random orientation of homologue pairs: the random
orientation of homologues pairs in metaphase I allows for the
production of gametes with many different assortments of
homologous chromosomes
COMPARISON:
SABAL AUDREY, OCLADINA ZHAM 2D
Mitosis Body cells
Diploid – ends with 46 chromosomes with 2
identical diploid cells
Meiosis Sex cells
Diploid cell- ends with 4 non identified haploid
cell
SPERMATOGENESIS VS OOGENESIS
• are the processes of formation of male and female
gametes
spermatogenesis: leads to the formation of sperms
o is the process of formation of haploid sperms from
a diploid stem cell known as spermatogonium. The
process occurs inside the seminiferous tubules in
the testis. The entire process takes about 70 days
o spermatogenesis converts the spermatocyte into
4 spermatids
oogenesis: helps in the formation of ova
• the fertilization of the sperm and ova lead to the
formation of a zygote which further develops into an
embryo
o process of formation of ovum. The process occurs
in the ovaries of the female. One oogonium
produces a single ovum
o during oogenesis asymmetric cell division reduces
one large cell and three small ones that
degenerate into 3 polar bodies
GAMETOGENESIS
• Spermatogenesis takes place in the seminiferous
tubules of the male testis; the process is continuous
and each meiotic cycle of a primary spermatocyte
results in the formation of 4 non identical spermatozoa
• Begins with sexual maturity and occurs throughout the
post pubertal life of a man
• The spermatogonia contains 46 chromosomes-
through mitotic cell division they give rise to primary
 LEC 4 – CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

spermatocyte; which enter meiosis I and give rise to

the secondary spermatocyte which now contain 23
chromosomes, each consisting of 2 chromatids
• The secondary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis II and
give rise to the spermatids, which contain 23
chromosomes each consisting of a single chromatid
• The spermatids differentiate to become spermatozoa
or the mature sperm
OOGENESIS
• Begin in prenatal life, the ova develop from oogonia
within the follicles in the ovarian cortex
• About the 3rd month of fetal development the oogonia
through mitotic cell division begin to develop into
diploid primary oocyte
• Meiosis I continues to diplotene where it is arrested
until some time of the post pubertal reproductive life of
a woman
• This suspended diplotene is referred to as dictyotene
• Subsequent to puberty several follicles begin to mature
with each menstrual cycle
• Meiosis I rapidly proceeds with an uneven distribution
of cytoplasm and cytokinesis of meiosis I
• Resulting in the secondary oocyte containing most of
the cytoplasm and a first polar body
• The secondary oocyte has been ovulated which begins
in meiosis II
• Meiosis II continues only if fertilization takes place
• The completion of meiosis II results in a haploid ovum
and a second polar body
• The first polar body might undergo myosis II or it might
be generate so only one of the potential for gametes
produced each menstrual cycle is theoretically viable
FERTILIZATION
• The chromosomes of the egg and sperm produced in
meiosis II are each surrounded by a nuclear membrane
within the cytoplasm of the ovum and are referred to as
pronuclei
• The male and female pronuclei fuse to form the diploid
nucleus of the zygote, and the first mitotic division
begins

• Spermatogenesis is a continuous process

o Puberty to old age
• Oogenesis is a discontinuous process
o Because the early stages take place in the fetus
and the rest is in the later stages of life
o Prior to birth stops and reactivated in the puberty
of females then stops again and is reactivated
during fertilization

SABAL AUDREY, OCLADINA ZHAM 2D