1st SEMESTER | 2022-2023 SEPTEMBER 12, 2022

LESSON 4: CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

LECTURER: Ms. Nina Betina Marie M. Igana

*organelle – is a structure within the cytoplasm

TOPIC OUTLINE that performs a specific job in the cell. For
example the mitochondria, provide energy to
CELLULAR REPRODUCTION the cell. Another organelle called vacuoles,
store substances in the cells. These allow the
TYPES OF CELL REPRODUCTION eukaryotic cells to carry out more functions and
have greater cell specificity than prokaryotic
SPERMATOGENESIS vs.
cells. Ribosomes, where proteins are made, are
OOGENESIS the only organelle that are in your prokaryotic
cells.

CELLULAR REPRODUCTION PROKARYOTIC CELL REPRODUCTION

- Prokaryotic cells reproduce by a process
- There are two primary sets of cells:
that is called “binary fission”. During this
o Prokaryotic Cells
process, the single celled DNA molecule
➢ Does not contain a true
replicates and the original cell is
nucleus
divided into two identical daughter
➢ DNA is coiled up in a region
cells.
called the “nucleoid”
- The DNA in such cells is contained in a
➢ E.g. Bacteria
single circular chromosome called a
➢ DNA is found in the
“plasmid” within the cytoplasm.
cytoplasm rather than
- The reproductive process starts with the
enclosed in a nuclear
replication of the chromosome. The new
membrane.
chromosome attached itself to the
➢ These cells are found in
plasma membrane and the two
single celled organisms.
chromosomes migrate to the opposite
o Eukaryotic Cells
ends of the cell. The plasma membrane
➢ These are called so
in the middle of the cell grows inward
because they have a true
until it closes to separate the cell into
nucleus.
two compartments each with a full
➢ E.g. Cells in plants, animal,
complement of the genetic material.
fungus
- The cell then fissions at the center,
➢ The nucleus which houses
forming two new daughter cells.
the DNA, is contained within
a membrane, and is
BINARY FISSION
separated by other cellular
structures.
➢ They do not have defined
organelles aside from the
ribosome.
➢ These cells are usually
larger than prokaryotic
cells and they are found
mainly in multicellular
organisms.
➢ These cells also contain
other organelles aside from
the nucleus.

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*you may have noticed that binary fission and - Only occurs in gametic cells
mitosis have the same start and end but they
both have different processes in between. MITOSIS
- A process in which a eukaryotic cell
EUKARYOTIC CELL REPRODUCTION nucleus splits in two, followed by division
- Eukaryotes grow and reproduce through of the parent cell into two daughter
a process called “mitosis.” cells.
- The life of eukaryotic cells is - “mitosis” means “threads,” refers to the
characterized by a cell cycle with two threadlike appearance of
major phases: chromosomes as the cell prepares to
o Interphase divide.
o Cell division - Mitosis is divided into five phases:
- Some eukaryotic organisms also
reproduce asexually through processes
such as budding, regeneration, and
parthenogenesis.
- Eukaryotic cells have more DNA thus the
process is more complicated compared
to the prokaryotic cell reproduction.
1) Interphase
o DURING THE INTERPHASE
➢ The cell grows and makes a
→ The cell takes in
copy of its DNA.
nutrients, grows, and
2) Prophase
duplicates its
➢ The DNA is condensed
chromosomes.
down to chromosomes.
o DURING THE CELL DIVISION
➢ This does not happen in
PHASE
prokaryotic cells because
→ The nucleus divides in
the DNA are crumpled and
a process called
mixed all throughout.
“mitosis” and then the
3) Metaphase
divided nuclei are
➢ “M” for “middle”
established in
➢ The chromosomes align in
separate cells in a
the middle.
process called
4) Anaphase
“cytokinesis.”
➢ “A” for “apart”
➢ The chromosomes pull
apart.
TYPES OF CELL REPRODUCTION 5) Telophase
These two processes are responsible for creating ➢ The nuclear membrane
two different types of cells. starts to form around the
1. MITOSIS two nuclei and there would
- A process that creates a nearly be an appearance of the
exact copy of the original cell. cleavage furrow.
Somatic cells, which include - Cytokinesis then follows the furrow pinch
nearly all human cells, are together then the two new cells are
created by this process. formed.
2. MEIOSIS
- It is a different form of
reproduction that leads to the
production of germ cells, or sex
cells.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN BINARY FISSION AND
MITOSIS
BINARY FISSION MITOSIS
DNA is uncondensed Chromosomes
DNA moves to poles Spindles: generated
by centrioles to pull
apart the
chromosomes
Not nearly as
organized
Both have DNA copies and undergo cell
division.
1) INTERPHASE
- DNA in the cell is
copied in preparation for cell
division. This results in two
identical full sets
chromosomes.
- Outside of the nucleus
are two centrosomes, each
containing a pair
centrioles. These structures
are critical for the process of cell
division.
- Microtubules extend from these
centrosomes.
- A cell forms by the division of its mother
cell. What must this newborn cell do next
if it wants to go on and divide itself?
Preparation of division happens in three
steps:
G1 - also called the “first gap
PHASE phase,” the cell grows
physically larger, copies
organelles, and makes
the molecular building
blocks it will need in later
steps.
- longest and typically last
about 9 hours
- Cells are metabolically
active during this phase.
This is also when protein
synthesis takes place.
- . A cell might be
permanently arrested
during this stage if it does
not undergo further
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division. This arrested
phase is referred to as
“Gap 0 (G0)”.
S PHASE - the cell synthesizes a
complete copy of the
DNA in its nucleus. It also
duplicates a microtubule-
organizing structure
called the centrosome.
The centrosome help
separate the DNA during
mitosis phase.
- lasts about 5 hours in
mammalian cells.
- this is when DNA
synthesis occurs wherein
the DNA replicates itself
then the chromosomes
of then consist of two
identical sister
chromatids.
- some DNA replicate
of early in this phase and
some replicate later.
G2 - the cell grows more,
PHASE makes proteins and
organelles, and begins to
reorganize its contents in
preparation for mitosis. G2
phase ends when mitosis
begins.
- this lasts about 3 hours.
- the cell prepares to
undergo cell division, then
the completion of this
phase represents the end
of the interphase.
- The G1, S, and G2 phases together are
known as the interphase. The prefix
“inter” means “between.” Reflecting
that interphase takes place between
one mitotic phase and the next.

- It is said that the average mammalian
cycle last about 17-18 hours and is the
transition of a cell from one interphase
through cell division and back to
interphase.
- The cell cycle is divided into four major
stages. The first three stages are the G1,
S, G2 phases which comprise the
interphase. The fourth and final phase is
the mitotic phase.
- The final step is Mitosis wherein this stage
lasts about 1-2 hours in most
mammalian cells. This is the process by
which cells reproduce themselves
creating your two daughter cells that
are genetically identical to one another
and to the original parent cells. Mitosis is
itself is divided in two stages.
STAGES OF MITOSIS
2) PROPHASE
- The chromosomes
condense into X shaped
structures that can be easily
seen under a microscope.
- Each chromosome is
composed of two sister
chromatids containing
identical genetic information.
- The chromosomes then pair up so that
both copies of chromosomes 1 are
together and both copies of
chromosomes 2 are together.
- At the end of prophase, the membrane
around the nucleus in the cell dissolves
away releasing the chromosomes.
- The mitotic spindle, which consists of
your microtubules and other proteins,
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extend across the cell between the
centrioles as they move to opposite
poles of the cell.
- Chromosomes are at their greatest
elongation and are not visible as
discrete structures under the L/M during
interphase. But during prophase,
chromosomes begin to coil thus it
becomes more condensed and it
begins to become visible as discrete
structures. Nuclei are visible early in
prophase but disappear as the stage
progresses.
PROMETAPHASE
- Prometaphase is a short period
between prophase and metaphase
during which the nuclear membrane
disappears, and the spindle fibers begin
to appear.
- Chromosomes are attached to the
spindle fibers at their kinetochores.
3) METAPHASE
- The mitotic spindle is
completed, the centrioles
divide and moved to
opposite poles, and the
chromosomes line up at
the equatorial plate.
- The chromosomes
reach the maximum state
of contraction during this
phase.
- It is metaphase chromosomes that are
traditionally studied in cytogenetics.
4) ANAPHASE
- The centromeres divide
longitudinally, and the sister
chromatids separate during
this stage.
- Sister chromatids
migrate to opposite poles as
Anaphase progresses.
 5) TELOPHASE
- The chromosomes
uncoil and become
indistinguishable again.
- The nuclei are
reformed and the nuclear
membrane is reconstructed.
- At each pole of the
cell, a full set of chromosomes
gather. A membrane forms
around each set of
chromosomes to create two
new nuclei.
- The single cell then pinches in the
middle to form two separate daughter
cells each containing a full set of
chromosomes within a nucleus.
- Telophase is usually followed by
cytokinesis or what we know as
“cytoplasmic division.”
- Barring errors in DNA synthesis or cell
division, the products of mitosis are two
genetically identical daughter cells
each of which contains the complete
set of genetic material that was present
in the parent cell.
- The two daughter cells enter interphase,
and the cycle is repeated.
CYTOKINESIS
- The cytoplasm of the cell is split into two,
making two new cells.
- This usually begins just as mitosis is
ending, with a little overlap. A
membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes to create new nuclei.
- Importantly, cytokinesis takes place
differently in animal and plant cell.
MEIOSIS
- The production of gametes – sex cells,
or sperm and eggs.
- Meiosis takes place in the gametes and
testis which is a process involving one
duplication of the DNA and two cell
division namely Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2
which reduces the number of
chromosomes from the diploid number
to the haploid number.
*diploid- one with two sets of chromosomes
*haploid- one with a single set of chromosomes
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- from your 46 chromosomes, it will then
become 23.
- Its goal is to make daughter cells with
exactly half as many chromosomes as
the starting cell.
- Each gamete produce contains only
one copy of each chromosome.
- In humans, the haploid cells made in
meiosis are sperm and egg. When a
sperm and an egg join in fertilization,
this restores the diploid number in the
zygote.
- In fertilization, the two haploid sets of
chromosomes form a complete diploid
set: a new genome.
- Meiosis is divided into:
o Meiosis 1 or Reductional
division
o Meiosis 2 or Equational division
PHASES OF MEIOSIS
- The cell goes through similar stages and
uses similar strategies to organize and
separate chromosomes.
- In many ways, meiosis is a lot like mitosis.
However, in meiosis, the cell has a more
complex task. It still needs to separate
sister chromatids (the halves of a
duplicated chromosome), as in mitosis.
- These goals are accomplished in
meiosis using a two-step division
process. But it must also separate
homologous chromosomes, the similar
but non identical chromosome pairs an
organism receives from its two parents.
- Each round of division, cells go through
four stages: P.M.A.T
- Homologue pairs separate during a first
round of cell division called, meiosis 1.
Sister chromatids separate during a
second round called, meiosis 2. Since
cell division occurs twice during meiosis.
one starting cell can produce 4
gametes (eggs or sperm).
- Before entering the process of Meiosis 1,
a cell must undergo interphase.
Undergoing G1, S, G2 phases.
- Meiosis 1 is comprised of several
substages:
 MEIOSIS I Note: These have two chromosomes and four
1) PROPHASE I chromatids. With one chromosome originating
- As in mitosis, the chromosomes begin to from each parent.
condense but during prophase I in - The Prophase I is further specified by
meiosis 1, they also pair up. subdividing into five recognizable
- Each chromosome carefully aligns with stages:
its homologue partner, also called
“bivalent chromosomes”, so that the o Leptonema
two match up at corresponding → Referred to as
positions along their full length. the thin thread stage.
CROSSING OVER PROCESS The chromosomes are
long and slender with
many bead-like
structures called
“chromomere”.
→ Leplep is thin and
single.
➢ The letters A, B, and C represent the → In leptotene, there are
genes found at spots in the 46 chromosomes each
chromosomes. There are capital letters comprised of two
and small letters that represent alleles chromatids. The
from each gene. chromosome begins
➢ The DNA is broken at the same spot on to condense but are
each homologue between genes B and not yet visible with L/M,
C. They are connected in a crisscross → Once leptotene takes
pattern so that the homologues place, the cell is
exchange parts of the DNA. committed to meiosis.
➢ This process is
helped along by a o Zygonema
protein structure → Homologous
called the chromosomes in
“synaptonemal zygotene appear
complex” that thread-like structures
holds the pair locus for locus.
homologues → Stage where
together. homologous
chromosomes spare to
form bivalent or tetrad.
- At the said time, they are said to be at The pairing is called
synapsis. During synapsis, there is an synapsis.
exchange of genetic material between Synaptonemal
homologous chromosomes. complex is formed.
- The point where cross-over occurs is → A tripartite structure,
called the “chiasma.” “chiasmata” – the synaptonemal
plural. complex, can be seen
- At the end of Prophase I, instead of with E/M.
having two capital letters and two small → The synaptonemal
letter alleles, they now carry a mixture of complex is necessary
a capital letter with a small letter. for the phenomenon
of crossing over that

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 will take place later in → In diplotene,
Prophase I. chromosomes
→ The zygonema continue to shorten
proceeds in a zipper- and thicken, and the
like fashion. homologous
chromosomes begin
o Pachynema to repel each other.
→ Synapsis is → This repulsion
complete during continues until the
this stage. The homologous
chromosomes chromosomes are
continue to held together only at
condense and now points where crossing
appear as thicker over took place. These
threads. points are referred to
→ The paired as “trasmata”.
homologues structures → In males, the sex
called “bivalents”, vesicles appears, and
sometimes referred to the X and Y
as “tetrads”, because chromosomes
they are composed of associate end to end.
four chromatids.
→ The phenomenon of o Diakenesis
crossing over takes → The
place during chromosomes reach
pachytene. ‘ their greatest
→ Homologous are like contraction during this
segments of DNA are stage of prophase.
exchanged between → Bivalents are
non-sister chromatids distributed all
of the bivalents. throughout the
→ The result of the nucleus.
crossing over is a
reshuffling or 2) METAPHASE I
recombination of - After the crossing over, the spindle
genetic material begins to capture the chromosomes
between homologues and move them towards the center of
creating new the cell or the metaphase plate.
combination of genes - During this phase, homologue pairs – not
in the daughter cells. individual chromosomes – line up at the
metaphase plate for separation.
o Diplonema - Each chromosome attaches to
→ Homologues microtubules from just one pole of the
separates starting spindle, and the two homologues of a
from the centromere. pair bind to microtubules from opposite
There is separation of poles.
strands because of - In an organism with 2 sets of
the synaptonemal chromosomes, there are 4 ways in which
complex that is no the chromosomes can be arranged
longer functional. resulting in differences in chromosomal

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 distribution in daughter cells after
meiosis 1.
- This means that there is a 50-50 chance
that the daughter cells get either the
mother’s or the father’s homologue.
- This phase is characterized by the
disappearance of the nuclear
membrane and the formation of the
meiotic spindle.

3) ANAPHASE I
- Homologous chromosomes, each
containing chromatids, move to
separate poles.
- The centromeres of each bivalent
separate and migrate to opposite poles.
But unlike mitosis, the centromeres do
- These cells move from Meiosis 1 to
not split, and the sister chromatids
Meiosis 2 without copying their DNA.
remain paired in this phase.

MEIOSIS II
4) TELOPHASE I
- Meiosis 2 is a shorter and simpler process
- The two haploid sets of chromosomes
compared to Meiosis 1.
reach separate poles and the
- This resembles mitosis more than Meiosis
cytoplasm divides.
1.
- A new nuclear membrane forms around
- This phase begins with 2 haploid cells
each set of chromosomes then result to
and end with 4 haploid cells. These 4
two cells containing 23 chromosomes
male sites are genetically different from
each comprise of 2 chromatids.
one another.

CYTOKINESIS
1) PROPHASE II
- It then divides the cell into two daughter
- Spindle fibers reform and attach to
cells and each of these cells is now
centromeres.
haploid with half the number of
chromosomes per nucleus as in meiosis
2) METAPHASE II
1.
- Chromosomes align on the metaphase
plate in preparation for centromeres to
divide in the next phase.

3) ANAPHASE II
- Chromosomes divide at the
centromeres, and the resulting
chromosomes each have chromatids
that move toward opposite poles of the
cell.

4) TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

- Nuclear membranes form around each
set of chromosomes. Four haploid nuclei
are formed in Telophase II. Division of the

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 cytoplasm during cytokinesis results in as in humans,
four haploid cells. crossovers will happen
Note: These four cells are not identical. As at many different
random arrangements of bivalents and crossing points.
over in meiosis 1 leads to different genetic o RANDOM ORIENTATION
composition of these cells. → The random
orientation of
- In humans, meiosis produces genetically homologue pairs in
different haploid daughter cells each metaphase 1 allows
with 23 chromosomes that consist of one for the production of
chromatid. gametes with many
- These haploid cells become unfertilized different assortments
eggs in females and sperm in males. The of homologous
genetic differences ensure that siblings chromosomes.
of the same parents are never entirely
genetically identical.

*when the sperm and egg cell undergo

fertilization, you will get diploid cells.

HOW MEIOSIS “MIXES AND MATCHES” GENES

- There are many more potential gamete
types than just the four discussed.
- The main reason why we get genetically
different gametes are because of the
crossing over and the random
orientation of homologue pairs.
o CROSSING OVER
→ The points where
homologues crossover
SPERMATOGENESIS vs.
and exchange
genetic material are OOGENESIS
chosen more or less at - These two processes are the formation
random, and they will of male and female gametes.
be different in each - Spermatogenesis leads to the formation
cell that goes through of sperms.
meiosis. If meiosis - Oogenesis helps in the formation of ova.
happens many times,

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 - The fertilization of the sperm and ova and give rise to the
leads to the formation of a zygote which spermatids.
further develops into an embryo. → The spermatids
contain 23
GAMETOGENESIS chromosomes each
- This greatly differs between consisting of a single
spermatogenesis and oogenesis. chromatid. These
spermatids
o SPERMATOGENESIS differentiate to
→ It is the process of become spermatozoa
formation of haploid or what we know as
sperms from a diploid the mature sperm.
stem cell known as o OOGENESIS
spermatogonium. The → Is the process of
process occurs inside formation of ovum.
the seminiferous The process occurs in
tubules in the testis. the ovaries of the
The entire process female. One
takes about 70 days. oogonium produces a
→ This process converts single ovum.
the spermatocytes into → During this process,
four spermatids. asymmetric cell
→ The production of a division produces one
primary spermatocyte large cell and three
results in the formation small ones that
of four non-identical regenerate 3 polar
spermatozoa. bodies.
→ This process begins in → This process begins in
sexual maturity and prenatal life. The ova
occurs all throughout develop from oogonia
the post pubertal life of in the follicles in the
a man. ovarian cortex.
→ The spermatogonia → At about the 3rd month
contains 46 of fetal development,
chromosomes. the oogonia, through
Through mitotic cell mitotic cell division,
division, they give rise begin to develop into
to primary diploid primary
spermatocytes. These oocytes.
primary → Meiosis 1 continue to
spermatocytes enter diplotene where it is
Meiosis 1 and give rise arrested until some
to the secondary time, the post pubertal
spermatocytes which reproductive life of a
now contains 23 woman.
chromosomes each → This suspended
consisting of 2 diplotene is referred to
chromatids. as “dictyotene”
→ The secondary → Subsequent to
spermatocyte puberty, several
undergoes Meiosis 2 follicles begin to

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 mature with each COMPARISON:
menstrual cycle.
Meiosis 1 rapidly
proceeds with an
uneven distribution of
the cytoplasm in
cytokinesis of meiosis 1.
→ Resulting in a
secondary oocyte
containing most of the
cytoplasm and a first
polar body.
→ The secondary oocyte
has been ovulated
which begins in meiosis
2. Meiosis 2 continues
only if fertilization takes
place. The completion
of meiosis 2 results in a
haploid ovum and a
second polar body.
The first polar body
might undergo meiosis
2 or it might
degenerate.
→ Only one of the four
potential gametes
produced in each
menstrual cycle is
theoretically viable.

FERTILIZATION
- The chromosomes off the egg and
sperm is produce in meiosis 2 are each
surrounded by a nuclear membrane
within the cytoplasm of the ovum and
our referred to as pronuclei.
- The male and female pronuclei fuse to
form the diploid nucleus of the zygote,
and the first mitotic division begins.

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