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European Journal
of Work and
Organizational
Psychology
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Organizational Culture
Karel De Witte & Jaap J. van Muijen
Published online: 10 Sep 2010.

To cite this article: Karel De Witte & Jaap J. van Muijen (1999)
Organizational Culture, European Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology, 8:4, 497-502, DOI: 10.1080/135943299398122

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 EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, 1999, 8 (4), 497–502
INTRODUCTION 497

Organizational Culture
Karel De Witte
Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium

Jaap J. van Muijen

LTP, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Since In search of excellence (Peters & Waterman, 1982) researchers as well as

practitioners have been interested in organizational culture. Although much
confusion and discussion about the concept remains, organizational culture as a
concept has not disappeared from organizational literature and practice. Organi-
zations and their managers still want to have an impact on organizational culture,
whether by consolidating it or by changing it.
But management of organizational culture is a controversial topic. Some
authors think that organizational culture can easily be managed (Anthony, 1994),
whereas for others this is seen to be much more difficult (Burack, 1991; Nord,
1985; Trice & Beyer, 1990). According to these authors, organizational culture
management is constrained by such diverse factors as the multiplicity and
complexity of sub-cultures, conflicting political interests, bad timing, and com-
munication failures.
Organizational culture pragmatics argue that organizational culture can be,
should be, and has been managed, and they often offer guidance how to do this.
Organizational culture purists find it ridiculous to talk about managing organi-
zational culture—organizational culture cannot be managed, it evolves (Martin,
1985).
This debate of organizational culture management seems to depend on the
organizational culture approach the researcher believes in. Some researchers
suggest that organizations should be conceptualized as cultures. They favour the
view that organizational culture is part of what an organization is rather than
something an organization has (Smircich, 1983). Those researchers who argue
that organizational culture is a socially constructed system of shared beliefs and
values would find it inconsistent to think systematically managing or attempting
to control the organizational culture phenomenon. They claim that organizational

Requests for reprints should be addressed to K. De Witte, Department of Work and

Organizational Psychology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Tiensestraat 102, 3000 Leuven,
Belgium. Email: karel.dewitte@psy.kuleuven.ac.b e
© 1999 Psychology Press Ltd
 498 DE WITTE AND VAN MUIJEN

culture can only be influenced in an indirect way and is the result of the
interaction between the individual and organizational processes.
Other researchers who are searching for more predictable methods of
organizational control believe that organizational culture can be managed. These
researchers follow the opinion that an organization has a culture or produces a
culture, and usually define organizational culture as the social and normative glue
that holds the organization together (Deal & Kennedy, 1982).
It is not the intention of this special issue to give final answers to this ongoing
discussion. Rather, the intention is to contribute to the debate by offering diverse
contributions. In this Introduction, we first offer a framework on organizational
culture and will then site the different contributions within this framework.
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A FRAMEWORK FOR ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Figure 1 gives an overview of the different elements that should be taken into
account when dealing with organizational culture. The model refers to formation
as well as to the change or development of organizational culture. This model
integrates literature as well as practical experiences within consultancy projects
with the aim of changing the organizational culture.
The outside frame of the figure refers to the influencing factors in the broader
environment, which influence the organizational culture. Influencing factors
closer to the organization can be found on the next frame. These are influenced by
the broader environmental factors. When an organization is founded, organi-

NATIONAL CULTURE

PRESSURE, CRISIS S
T
P
B O A
R
U V U K
O
S I T E
C
I S INTERACTION BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL C H
E
N I O O
S
E O AND ORGANIZATION M L
S
S N E D
E
S S E
S
R
LEADERSHIP S

PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

FIG. 1. A conceptual model for understanding organizational culture.

 INTRODUCTION 499

zational culture forms and develops from the interaction between individual and
organization. This is visualized by the horizontal line in the middle of Fig. 1,
which represents different organizational processes, such as operational pro-
cesses, selection, training, evaluation, R&D, maintenance processes, etc. The
organizational culture can be “tasted” and “smelled” through these different
business- and personnel-related processes. Finally, we find the outcomes of
organizational culture: What is the impact on the individual members of the
organization?

The Environment
From the literature it becomes clear that a diverse constellation of variables has
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an influence on the organizational culture. The different influencing factors, both

in the broader and the more direct environment of the organization, are visualized
as surrounding influences. In fact, the organization should be aware of the dif-
ferent variables at any moment. As this may be not realistic, it seems us that
different variables are “controlled for” at different moments. Some are con-
tinuously present and other variables are regularly emphasized at different
moments or phases of the organizational life cycle.
Influences that are mentioned in the literature are the national culture, the
evolution of the business, professional associations, and stakeholders.

The Organization
The following influencing factors are situated in the more direct environment of
the organization.
The importance of a vision is often emphasized in the literature (Frohman,
1997; Katz & Miller, 1996; Kotter, 1996; Simpson & Beeby, 1993). This vision
should be inspiring and challenging (Nixon, 1992). Kotter (1996) mentions the
following criteria for an effective vision: conceivable, attractive, realistic,
directed (targeted), flexible, and communicable. Rites of rationalization and
legitimation (Beyer & Trice, 1988) help the individuals understand the content
and reason of the vision. These sensitizing acts legitimate the thinking, making it
appear worthwhile, acceptable, and necessary.
The development of a clear vision is often difficult for managers. Different
authors stress the importance of leaders in the organization (Frohman, 1997;
Kotter, 1996; Simpson & Beeby, 1993; Zamanou & Glaser, 1994). Through the
last decades organizations have learnt that good management is one of the most
important factors for optimal daily functioning. They have more experience in
controlling the current situation than in changing it into new required directions,
although the latter is required more and more nowadays. An organization not
only needs leaders at the top, but at all levels (Kotter, 1996)! Some authors
underline that a change in leadership is required to realize significant organi-
zational culture change (Dyer, 1985; Gordon, 1991), whereas for others
 500 DE WITTE AND VAN MUIJEN

organizational culture can be changed by a relatively stable leadership team

(Lundberg, 1985). According to Gagliardi (1986), substantial organizational
culture changes require a change in leadership, whereas incremental changes can
be guided by the current leaders, who demonstrate new competences and
distribute appropriate reconciliation myths to reduce conflict.
The perception of a crisis or the experience of pressure (e.g. productivity) will
challenge the existing organizational culture. Lundberg (1985) makes a dis-
tinction between precipitating pressures (e.g. atypical performance demands,
stakeholder pressures, organizational growth and decrement, resource depri-
vation) and triggering events (environmental calamities, environmental
opportunities, internal revolutions, and external revolutions). A triggering event
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is a stimulus that leads to the release of the tensions built up by the precipitating
pressures.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE FORMATION

AND CHANGE
Organizational culture is a complex phenomenon. Organizational culture is
manifest in behavioural norms, hidden assumptions, and human nature
(Kilmann, 1985). Also, Schein (1985) suggests the usefulness of viewing organi-
zational culture from different levels, namely artifacts and creations, values, and
basic assumptions. The degree to which an organizational culture is consciously
and overtly rather than unconsciously and covertly manifest, influences how
easily organizational culture can be managed and changed. When organizational
culture change involves changing surface-level behavioural norms and artifacts,
it can occur with relative ease. At the deepest levels of organizational culture,
namely assumptions, ideologies, and human nature, it is very difficult and time
consuming to create organizational culture change (Kilmann, 1985). The process
of identifying and changing organizational culture is affected by the level of
organizational culture under consideration. A top-down approach to organi-
zational culture change is feasible if the focus is on behavioural norms and not on
assumptions. However, top-down approaches generally result in overt com-
pliance and not covert acceptance, and might be difficult to sustain. Therefore, a
combination of top-down initiation with participative feedback sessions to define
the new behavioural norms through dialogue with the organizational members is
to be preferred. Managing the deepest layers of organizational culture clearly
requires a participative approach, which results in overt commitment and covert
acceptance. Participative approaches to changing underlying assumptions are
difficult and time consuming to implement, but are likely to result in changes that
last and are felt in everything the organization members do. As Kilmann (1985,
p. 365) writes, “executives may try to dictate a new culture by making dramatic
changes in their own behaviour and symbolic gestures and fiery speeches, but
 INTRODUCTION 501

only when work group members encourage one another to be receptive to

overtures by other groups will culture change take place”.

Outcomes
Brown (1985) finds the following outcomes in the literature: conflict reduction,
co-ordination and control, uncertainty reduction, and a higher motivation among
the employees. The evolvement of an organizational culture consistent with the
vision and strategy leads to an effective and competitive organization. It is dif-
ficult to describe this competitive advantage in hard business facts, because it
differs from organization to organization.
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CONTRIBUTIONS
Each contribution investigates the relation between different elements of the
framework.
Koopman, Den Hartog, and Konrad et al. refer on the one hand to the national
culture and on the other hand to leadership. Differences in leadership prototypes
mirror differences in national culture. Leadership is needed for changing
organizational culture, but leadership itself appears to be influenced by national
culture.
Ruigrok and Achtenhagen analyse four cases of change in organizations and
study the role of organizational culture in this change process. In addition, the
influence of the business and international orientation are under scrutiny.
Peiró, Gonzalez-Roma, and Cañero report on a change project of managerial
culture. The importance of dialogue, mentioned previously, as a step in changing
the organizational culture is clarified and how this can be realized in practice is
demonstrated.
Van Muijen et al. describe an instrument to measure organizational culture
and investigate the influence of national culture and sector on organizational
culture.
Vandenberghe and Peiró describe the impact of organizational culture on the
individual members of the organization.
Finally, De Witte & van Muijen offer an overview of critical questions for
research as well consultancy on organizational culture. The practitioners might
be less concerned about some theoretical problems, and the researchers might
have other concerns from the practitioner.
We have not tried to reduce the complexity of the phenomenon of organi-
zational culture. We hope the contributions will be helpful in thinking about
organizational culture and will give some guidance for practitioners and re-
searchers, particularly in avoiding possible pitfalls. But the reader looking for a
definitive answer will encounter another illusion.
 502 DE WITTE AND VAN MUIJEN

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