NCE3206

HYDRAULICS (LECTURE)
MODULE 6: FLOW AND ITS ENERGY

I. INTRODUCTION IV. THEORIES AND CONCEPTS

Water that flows in pipe and channels (conduits) have It can be recalled that the word Hydraulics have been
energy and the forms of energy present enables the derived from the greek word “Hudour”, which means
water to flow from one point to another. In the flow of “water”. Hydraulics is defined as the science that deals
water, the properties of fluids still plays a major role in with the mechanical behavior of fluids at rest or in
the flow of water and does have direct impact on the motion. In the context of civil engineering, the fluid that
energy at a particular point. Likewise, the movement of is mostly dealt with is water.
water along channels or conduits is also affected by
friction resistance that in turn is affected by viscosity of Flow can be quantified in terms of the following:
water.
1. Volume Flow Rate Q
It is also important to note that the flow itself must be The volumetric flow rate (also known as volume
characterized. Various flow regimes are present and flow rate, rate of fluid flow, or volume velocity) is
many of them can co-exist at any given time. the volume of fluid which passes per unit time;
usually it is represented by the symbol Q
II. DIAGNOSTIC ASSESSMENT (sometimes V̇). The SI unit is cubic meters per
The student will be assessed of their knowledge about second (m3/s) and the Imperial unit is cubic feet
kinetic and potential energy. per second (ft3/s).

III. INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOME 2. Mass Flow Rate M

The intended learning outcome of this module is to Mass flow rate is defined as the mass of matter
enable the students to learn about the concept of that passes through an area per unit of time. It is a
energy in flow. Specifically, the specific outcomes are measure of the rate of the movement of passing
as follows: fluids (liquids and gases) through a defined area.
1. The student should be able to quantify flow rate
2. The student should be able to characterized the Mass flow rate is a very important variable, which
various flow regimes and determine which of these is commonly seen in engineering and fluid
can co exists mechanics. Its standard SI unit is kilogram per
3. The Student will be able to demonstrate their ability second (kg/s) and in Imperial system the unit is
to set up the energy equation depending on what expressed in slugs per seconds (slugs/s).
the problem requires
3. Weight Flow Rate W
Weight flow rate is defined as the weight of matter
that passes through an area per unit of time. It is
also a measure of the rate of the movement of
passing fluids (liquids and gases) through a
defined area.

Weight flow rate is a very important variable, which

is commonly seen in engineering and fluid
mechanics. Its standard SI unit is newton per
second (N/s) and its unit in Imperial system is
pounds per seconds (lbs/s).

EXAMPLE 1:
Using a volume gauge (recall the hydraulics lab
activity) the time it takes for water to rise from 1liter to
2liters mark is 16.8secs. Determine the Volume Flow
rate as well as the Mass flow rate and Weight Flow
rate.

SOLUTIONS:
Since the gauge is marked in liters, then it would be
the volume flow rate which will be computed first. From
its notation of
Vol (V 2−V 1 )
Q= or Q=
Time (T 2−T 1 )
The following can be made as follows: Flow Regimes
Before moving on to the main concept of energy in
( 2 li−1 li ) 1 li flow, the concepts of flow regimes must first be know.
Q= = = 0.05952li/s
(16.8s −0) 16.8s Flow regimes can either be as follows:
A) Laminar or Turbulent
This can be converted to m3/s as shown below B) Steady or Unsteady Flow These flow regimes
C) Uniform or Non-Uniform Flow can coexists together
li 1 m
3
m
3 D) 1, 2 or 3 Dimensional Flow
0.05952 ∗ =0.0000595
s 1000 li s
A. LAMINAR OR TURBULENT FLOW
To obtain the mass flow rate, the volume flow rate will Laminar flow is a type of flow regime that is visualized
be multiplied to the density of water (ρ = 1000kg/m3) in such a way that fluid particles flow in a relative
straight line
3
m kg
0.00005952 ∗1000 3 = 0.05952 kg/s
s m

To obtain the weight flow rate, the volume flow rate will
be multiplied to the unit weight of water (γ = 9810N/m3)
3
m N
0.00005952 ∗9810 3 = 0.59839 N/s
s m (laminar Flow)

Using dimensional analysis, it can be shown that the Turbulent flow on the other hand is is a type of flow
volume flow rate equation can also be written in terms regime that is visualized in such a way that fluid
of particles flow in a haphazard manner
Q=AV - Area * Velocity
Taking the dimensions of the volume flow rate as

3
L
Q=
T
Algebraically manipulating the equation above and (Turbulent Flow)
rewriting in the form:
L Majority of flow problem in hydraulics deals with
Q=L 2∗ turbulent flow. Mathematically, the difference between
T Laminar and Turbulent flow is determined using the
Reynolds formula
This can be written in SI units to be
ρ DV DV
RE = μ or R E = ν
2 m
Q=m ∗ or Q=A V Where:
s RE – Reynolds Number
D – Hydraulic Diameter of conduit
V – Velocity
ρ – Density of water
μ – Absolute Viscosity
μ
ν – Kinematic Viscosity; ν=ρ

If the Reynolds number is greater than 2000, then the

flow is described to be turbulent. When the flow is
less than or equal to 2000, then the flow is described
to be laminar.

Some Physicist consider the Reynolds Number

between 2000 to 4000 as transitional. Meaning, the
flow can go either (laminar or fully turbulent) at any
given moment.
 ( 1000 )V
2
Hydraulic diameter, DH, is the characteristic length 5
3.1416∗
used to determine Reynolds number when dealing with m 3

flow in non-circular mediums. Mathematically, this is 0.0001 = ; V = 5.0929m/s

s 4
computed using the equation
Substituting the value of V = 5.0929m/s to the
4A Reynolds number equation
DH =
P kg
1000 3 ∗5 mm∗
1m
∗5.0929
m
Where: m 1000 mm s
RE =
DH - Hydraulic Diameter s
A – Area of flow 0.0010016 N − 2
m
P – Wetted Perimeter of the conduit
RE = 25423.821 ; The flow is Turbulent
Hydraulic diameter provides an alternative to which
non-circular piping may be likened to circular ones to The Reynolds number is unitless
determine various characteristics of a fluid flow.
Determining the value is different for various EXAMPLE 3:
geometries. For a flow of 0.0001m3/s, determine whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent in a 600mm wide and 300mm
While diameter considerations are best for turbulent deep rectangular pipe. Take the density of water to be
flows, it is best to avoid it for laminar flows where the 1000kg/m3 and the absolute viscosity to be 0.0010016
shape of the piping plays a larger role on the flow. N-s/m2
Additionally, it is mainly of use in calculations of
turbulent flows it helps in finding shear stresses SOLUTIONS:
associated with the flow in question. This will be The basic equation of the Reynolds Number is given to
discussed be as follows:
ρ DV
EXAMPLE 2: RE = μ
For a flow of 0.0001m3/s, determine whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent in a 5mm diameter pipe. Take the
Since the conduit is not circular, it is important to obtain
density of water to be 1000kg/m3 and the absolute
first the hydraulic diameter which can be done using
viscosity to be 0.0010016 N-s/m2
the equation
SOLUTIONS: 4A
DH =
The basic equation of the Reynolds Number is given to P
be as follows:
ρ DV Since it is assumed that the conduit is fully flowing, the
RE = μ area of flow is simply the cross sectional area of the
conduit and this is simply A = BD.
For the hydraulic diameter of Circle
D
2 For the wetted perimeter, this is simply taken as the
4π portion of the conduit that is in contact with the water.
4 From the figure:
DH = = D = 5mm
πD B = 600mm

Looking at the given, the following will be input to the D= 300mm

equation
kg 1m
1000 3 ∗5 mm∗ V
m 1000 mm
RE = The wetted perimeter is then taken to be P = 2B + 2D.
s
0.0010016 N − 2
m Substituting the values of A and P in the Hydraulics
Diameter equation
Since the velocity is unknown in the equation above,
the value of the Reynold’s number will not be obtained. 4∗( 0.6 m∗0.3 m)
DH = = 0.4m
In order to obtain the value of velocity, the equation (0.3 m +0.3 m+ 0.6 m+0.6 m)
Q=AV will be used as follows:
Since the Reynolds number equation will also require
3 the value for velocity, it must also be obtained from the
m volume flow rate equation Q = AV
0.0001 =A V
s
 3
D. 1, 2 and 3 DIMENSIONAL FLOW
Q=AV ; 0.0001 m =(0.6 m x 0.3 m)V The term one, two or three dimensional flow refers
s
V = 0.000555m/s to the number of space coordinated required to
describe a flow. It appears that any physical flow is
Sunstituting the values of D H and V into the Reynold’s generally three-dimensional but these are difficult to
number equation calculate and calls for as much simplification as
kg m possible.
1000 3 ∗0.4 m∗0.000555
m s
RE = = 221.645 This simplification is achieved by ignoring changes to
s
0.0010016N − 2 flow in any of the directions, thus reducing the
m complexity. It may be possible to reduce a three-
dimensional problem to a two-dimensional one, even
The answer indicates that the flow is laminar. one dimensional one at times.
B. STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW A steady flow can be uniform or non-uniform and
Steady Flow one in which all conditions at any point in similarly an unsteady flow can also be uniform or non-
a stream or conduit remain constant with respect to uniform. For a steady flow discharge is constant with
time. True steady flow is present only in Laminar time and for a uniform flow the area of cross section of
flow. the fluid flow is constant through the flow path.
In turbulent flow, there are continual fluctuations in Examples of Different Flow Types
velocity. Pressure also fluctuate at every point. But if
this rate of change of pressure and velocity are equal Steady and Uniform Flow: Flow through a pipeline of
on both sides of a constant average value, then the constant diameter with a discharge constant with time.
turbulent flow can be considered as steady flow. The
exact term use for this is mean steady flow. Steady Steady and Non-Uniform Flow: Fixed discharge flow
flow may be uniform or non-uniform. through a tapering pipe. Water flow through a river with
a constant discharge is also a good example of such
Unsteady flow is a transient phenomenon. It may be flow as the span of river generally varies with distance
in time become steady or zero flow. For example when and amount of water flow in river is constant.
a valve is closed at the discharge end of the pipeline.
Thus, causing the velocity in the pipeline to decrease Unsteady and Uniform Flow: A flow through pipeline of
to zero. In the meantime, there will be fluctuations in constant cross section with sudden changes in fluid
both velocity and pressure within the pipe. discharge or pressure.
Unsteady flow may also include periodic motion such Unsteady and Non-Uniform Flow: Pressure surges in a
as that of waves of beaches. The difference between flow through a pipe of variable cross section. A
these cases and mean steady flow is that there is so practical example can be the water flow in the network
much deviation from the mean. And the time scale is of canals during water release.
also much longer.
Internal Flow
C. UNIFORM AND NON UNIFORM FLOW Internal flow is a phenomenon in which the flowing
Uniform Flow is a fluid flow in which characteristics fluids is confined between two boundaries
and parameters of flow remain unchanged with
distance along the flow path. A truly uniform flow is one For conduits as well as channel entry the velocity
in which the velocity is same at a given instant at every profile at entrance and exit is a major interest. From
point in the fluid. This definition holds for the ideal the illustration below:
case. Whereas in real fluids velocity varies across the
section.

But when the size and shape of cross section are

constant along the length of channels under
consideration, the flow is said to be uniform.

A Non-Uniform Flow is one in which velocity is not

constant at a given instant. Here, the effect of the entrance bell to the velocity
profile upon entry into the pipe is visualized. The
velocity profile would develop quickly.
The viscosity of the liquid has a very significant impact Note that for the two previous L E equations shown
to the entrance length. If the viscosity is constant, then above, this is only applicable to laminar flow.
the velocity profile would develop quickly and the flow
can be analyzed as uniform flow. EXAMPLE 4:
Water having a kinematic viscosity of 1.004 x 10 -6 m2/s
For laminar flow, the following entrance condition will flows into a conduit. Determine the entrance length L E
be shown below. Take note that the effect of viscosity is given the following:
still apparent and the same goes if the flow is turbulent
Q = 0.0001m3/s

A. Circular: Diameter = 300mm

B. Rectangular
b = 1800mm
h = 400mm

SOLUTIONS:
The relationship between the entrance length L E,
Reynolds Number RE, and the diameter is For circular pipe
A.R = 1
LE
=0.0065 R E Obtain the Reynolds # to verify if the flow is laminar.
D From the volume flow rate equation

Where D is diameter, LE is entrance and RE is Q = AV

Reynold’s number. 0.0001 = 3.1416(0.3)2(0.25)*V
V = 0.001414707 m/s
The length of the inviscid cone length is approximately
1/3 of the entrance length Obtain the Reynolds Number RE

If the entrance is not a circular pipe, the aspect ratio

A.R is computed by taking the ratio of the width over
the depth

The RE is then computed to be 422.7 which is indeed

laminar and the equation

LE
=0.0065 RE
D
is indeed applicable.

The Entrance Length LE is then computed to be

LE = 0.824m

If the aspect ratio is high, the relationship between L E,

RE and D will now be

LE The length of the inviscid cone is obtained by dividing

=0.04 RE the LE by 3; 0.824m / 3 = 0.275m
D
For rectangular pipe For Large Reynold numbers (RE = 100,000), the
A.R = (1800/400) = 4.5 relationship between pipe diameter (or hydraulic
depth), Inviscid length, developed length are as follows
Obtain the reynolds # to verify if the flow is laminar
From the volume flow rate equation

Q = AV
0.0001 = 1.8m*0.40m*V
V = 0.000139 m/s

The hydraulic diameter is obtained to be

4A
DH =
P
4(1800∗400)
DH = = 654.55mm
( 2∗1800+ 2∗400)

Obtain the Reynolds Number

For the velocity of the particle U, the values of n are
VD (0.000139∗0.65455) 5<n<10. Typically n = 7 and this forms the basis of the
RE = ν =
0.000001004 7th power rule

RE = 90.62 - Laminar For turbulent flow (R E = 4,000 – 20,000) the

approximate distances of LI, LD and LE are as follows:
Since the Aspect ratio is 4.5 the L E, D relationship will
be taken from
LE
=0.04 RE
D
EXAMPLE 5:
LE =0.04(90.62)0.65455 For a flow of 0.01 m 3/s; ν = 1.004 x 10-6 m2/s, D = 0.6m
determine the entrance length, Inviscid length and the
LE = 2.37m Profile development length

2.37m

0.79m

For turbulent flow, the situation is slightly different. The

entrance length will be slightly different because it will SOLUTIONS:
accommodate the time needed for the turbulent flow to Obtain the reynolds # to verify if the flow is laminar.
be fully developed. From the volume flow rate equation

Q = AV
0.01 = 3.1416(0.6)2(0.25)*V
V = 0.035368 m/s

Obtain the Reynolds Number RE

m
0.6 m∗0.035368
s
RE = = 21136.25 - Turbulent
m2
0.000001004
s
Since the value of the reynolds number does not
deviate far from 4000 – 20000 range the empirical
values for both the lengths concerned will still be
LI
=10 ; L I = 20m
2

LI LD
=50 ; L I = 30m =40 ; LD = 80m
0.6 2

LD LE
=200 ; LD = 120m =120 ; LE = 240m
0.6 2

LE
=600 ; LE = 360m
0.6

Looking at the figure, it can be considered that the

length of the inviscid zone (including the cone) can be
approximated to 2/3 of the entrance length L E
EXAMPLE 6:
The reason why the Entrance Length must be know
For a flow of 22 m3/s; ν = 1.004 x 10-6 m2/s, D = 2.0m
is because subsequent hydraulic lost analysis only
determine the entrance length, Inviscid length and the
deals with the developed flow and the length of the
development length
pipe where the developed flow occurs

The Energy Equation

Another important concept in hydraulics is the energy
equation. The energy equation for a particular point in
a liquid consists of the following:

Potential energy
P
1. Pressure Energy γ
2. Elevation Energy h

SOLUTIONS: Kinetic energy

Obtain the reynolds # to verify if the flow is laminar. v
2

From the volume flow rate equation 1. Velocity Head

2g
Q = AV According to the principle of conservation, energy
22 = 3.1416(2)2(0.25)*V can neither be created nor destroyed.
V = 7.003 m/s
Under ideal condition, the total energy at the first point
Obtain the Reynolds Number RE is equal to the total energy at the second point.
Mathematically this is represented by the following:
m
2 m∗7.003
s P1 V 2 P2 V 2
RE = = 13950199.2 - Turbulent
0.000001004
m2 γ + 2 g + h1 = γ + 2 g + h 2
s

Since the value of the reynolds number is way above

the 100000 value the empirical values for both the
lengths concerned will be
 In reality, there is what we call the loss of energy. This Where:
energy is not actually destroyed, it is simply P1
transformed into something that is not usable. The - Pressure Head (Potential) γ
energy equation will now be rewritten as follows
2
V
- Velocity Head (Kinetic Energy)
P1 V 2
P2 V 2
2g
γ + 2 g + h1 = γ + 2 g + h2 +HL 1−2
- elevation head (Potential Energy) Z
In a typical conduit flow, the flow can also be affected
by the energy added by the pump as well as the
- Major Head Loss in Pipes ∑ HL1−2
energy extracted by the turbine.
- Minor Loss in pipes ∑ HLM
The expanded energy equation will now be written in
the form For this example, the appropriate energy equation is
given as follows:
2 2
P1 V 2 P2 V2 P1 V 1 P2 V 2
γ 2 g 1 P γ + 2 g + h2 + HL1−2 +H T
+ + h +H = γ + 2 g + Z 1= γ + 2 g + Z 2 +HL 1−2

where HP and HT are the energy head imparted by the In order to reduce the unknowns from this equation let
Pump and Turbines respectively us take our reference at the surface of the reservoirs.

When considering the effects of pipe fittings and valves The reason why the reference points are at these
the Bernoulli's equation will now take the form: points are as follows:

P 1 V 21 P 2 V 12 1. The surface is under atmospheric pressure,

γ + 2 g + Z 1 HP = γ + 2 g + Z 2 +∑ HL1− 2+∑ HLM +H T P
therefore γ =0
2. Since the surface is still (di gumagalaw) the
where ΣHM is the sum of minor losses due to the V
2

effects of pipe fittings and valves. velocity head will be zero =0

2g
EXAMPLE 7: The Bernoulli’s equation will then be rewritten to be:
For a pipe that is 10mm in diameter and it is attached
to a tank 0.43m high and completely filled with water, 0+0+ 0.43m=0+0+0.27m +HL1−2
use ε = 0.015mm at Twater = 200C

El 43cm Rewriting the equation will give the total head loss to
be:
0.43m−0.27m=HL1−2
El 27cm
0.16m=HL1−2
D = 10mm
L = 45cm El 0cm
Head Loss
While the head loss can be computed algebraically, the
head loss itself can be quantified as a function of either
Determine the head loss from the pipe if the water level
volume flow rate Q or velocity V.
at the second tank is 27cm
One way of quantifying head loss in terms of Q or V is
SOLUTIONS:
the Darcy-Weisbach equation which is
mathematically written in the form
The first part of this solution is to set up the Bernoulli’s 2
equation accordingly: f LV
HL=
D2g
The full form of the Bernoulli’s equation is given to be Where:
2 1
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 HL – Head Loss
+
γ 2g +Z 1 +H P = γ 2 g +Z 2 +∑ HL1−2 + ∑ HL M +H T
+ f – friction factor
L - Length of pipe or conduit
V – Velocity
D – Diameter or Hydraulic Diameter
In terms of volume flow rate, this head loss equation in All flow in so-called open channels is driven by gravity.
turn can be written in the form It was first presented by the French engineer Philippe
2
0.0826 f L Q Gauckler in 1867, and later re-developed by the Irish
HL=
D5 engineer Robert Manning in 1890.
Which was actually obtained by substituting V with
Q mathematically, the head loss is written in the form
2 2
A 10.29 L n Q
HL= 16
; SI
1.85 3
C D
Since the computation of f involves implicit equations
which is quite difficult to solve at times when 2 2
calculators are limited to slide rules the darcy-weisbach 4.65L n Q
HL= 16
; IMPERIAL
equation is not that popular to engineers until the C 1.85 D 3
advent of digital scientific calculators.
EXAMPLE 8:
Earlier equations were developed to compute for the A pipe, 20mm in diameter and 430mm long have two
head loss but unlike Darcy-Weisbach, which can manometers at pts 1 and 2. as shown below
handle laminar flow and transition flow, these can only
produce accurate result for turbulent flow. El 38cm

The Hazen–Williams equation is an empirical

relationship which relates the flow of water in a pipe El 21cm
with the physical properties of the pipe and the
pressure drop caused by friction.
D = 20mm
It is used in the design of water pipe systems such as L = 43cm
fire sprinkler systems, water supply networks, and
irrigation systems. It is named after Allen Hazen and Determine the head loss and the flow rate at the pipe if
Gardner Stewart Williams. 1. Darcy’s Friction factor f is 0.024
2. Hazen Williams Constant C is 140
Mathematically it is written in the form
1.85
10.67 L Q SOLUTIONS:
HL= 1.85 4.87
; SI
C D The solution to this problem begins by setting the
Energy Equation with respect to the surface of the
1.85
4.52L Q manometers
HL= ; IMPERIAL
C 1.85 D 4.87
Where:
HL – head loss (m or ft) El 38cm
L – Length of pipe (m or ft)
Q – Flow rate (m3/s or ft3/s) El 21cm
C – Hazen Williams constant
D – Diameter or Hydraulic Diameter (m or ft) D = 20mm
L = 43cm
The Hazen–Williams equation has the advantage that
the coefficient C is not a function of the Reynolds
number, but it has the disadvantage that it is only valid The resulting equation will be:
2 2
for water. P1 V 1 P2 V 2
+
γ 2g +Z 1
= γ 2 g +Z 2 + HL1−2
+
Also, it does not account for the temperature or
viscosity of the water, and therefore is only valid at Since the reference points are located at the surface of
room temperature and conventional velocities. water, the pressure head and the velocity head will be
zero therefore the energy equation will be simplified as
Another head loss equation is the Manning’s equation. follows:
The Manning formula is an empirical formula 0+0+0.38m=0+0+0.21m +HL1−2
estimating the average velocity of a liquid flowing in a
conduit that does not completely enclose the liquid, and
such as open channel flow. However, this equation is
also used for calculation of flow variables in case of HL1−2 =0.17m
flow in partially full conduits, as they also possess a
free surface like that of open channel flow. Once the head loss is determined the flow rate can
now be obtained using the given constants:
For Darcy-Weisbach
2
0.0826 f L Q The energy at this point will be will be written as follows
HL=
D5 2
P V
E= γ +
0.0826 (0.024)( 0.43m)Q
2
2g
0.17 m=
(0.02m)5 2
V
0.42m=0.38m+
Q is then computed to be Q = 0.0007989 cu.m per sec 2g

For Hazen Williams Equation From the figure, the pitot tube will show the combined
1.85 pressure and velocity heads but there is no way to
10.67 L Q
HL= determine which is the pressure head and which is the
C 1.85 D 4.87 velocity head. This is why, a manometer will have to be
1.85
attached at the side of the pitot in order to distinguish
10.67(0.43 m)Q the velocity head.
0.17m=
1401.85 0.024.87
The velocity head will now be obtained as follows:
The computed Q will be Q = 0.0007945 cu.m per sec.
2
V
0.42m−0.38m= =0.04m
EXAMPLE 9: 2g
For the pipe with pitot tube shown below
The velocity of flow will now be

El - 42cm V =√ 0.04m∗(2 g ) = 0.886 m/s

From the volume flow rate equation

El - 38cm
Q = AV
2
πD m
Q= (0.886 )
4 s

( ) (0.886 m )
2
1m
π 25 mm∗
1000 mm
Q=
4 s

Determine the flow at the 25mm diameter pipe given Q = 0.000435 m3/s
the corresponding heads as well as the total energy
EXAMPLE 10:
SOLUTIONS: For a venturimeter shown below, 15 L/s of water
Since this is an application problem, it is more on the flowing from 1 to 2 with the pressure at pt. 1 is
laboratory but since this also demonstrate the measured to be 100 kPa and the pressure at pt. 2 is 70
application of the Energy Equation concepts, it will be kPa. Compute the loss of head between 1 and 2.
included here as well.

For a point in pitot tube, the energy at a particular point

is given to be:
2
P V
E= γ +
2g

It is noticeable that there is no head loss here since the

problem refers only to a single point.
Pt. 1
Based from the figure, the manometer that shows the Pt. 2
static pressure only reflects the pressure head at that Φ = 300mm Φ = 100mm
point (38cm from the center of the pipe).

The pitot tube that shows the stagnation pressure

actually includes both the Pressure head and velocity
head. (42cm on the manometer)
SOLUTIONS: V. ASSESSMENT
The first part of the solution is to set up the Bernoulli’s The students will be assessed with what they have
equation between points 1 and 2. learned about the concept of energy in flow.
Specifically, the student’s will be assessed as follows:
2 2
P1 V 1 P2 V 2 1. The student will be assessed about their ability to
γ + 2 g +z 1 = γ + 2 g +Z 2 +HL1−2 quantify flow rate with respect to the different
problem situation.
Since only the pressure were given, it would be best of 2. The student will be assessed about their ability to
the datum will be taken at the center line of the pipe. characterized the various flow regimes and
The Bernoulli’s equation will now be written as follows: determine which of these can co exists
3. The Student will be assess of their ability to set up
2 2 the energy equation depending on what the
100 kPa V 1 70 kPa V 2
+ + 0= + +0+HL1−2 problem requires
9.81 2g 9.81 2 g

By continuity, the flow at points 1 and 2 are equal VI. REFERENCES

hence, Q1 = Q2 = 15 L/s = 0.015m3/s and also the Mechanics of Fluids 4th ed
equation of mass flow rate to be Q = AV and with Merle, Potter and Ramadan.
velocity can be written as

Q
V=
A

Since the flow at points 1 and 2 are the same, the

velocity at the narrower section will then increase. This
is seen by the calculations below:
3
m
0.015
Q s
V 1= = = 0.2122m/s
A1 π (0.3 m) 2
4

and
3
m
0.015
Q s
V 2= = = 1.9099m/s
A2 π (0.1 m)2
4

The bernoulli’s equation can now be written as follows:

2 2
100 kPa 0.2122 70kPa 1.9099
+ +0= + +0+ HL1−2
9.81 2g 9.81 2g

The head loss can now be computed as follows:

HL1-2 = 2.8745m