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>0E[d 8`>D-,T,H
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€B   
-     > 

0.01
50
500
5000
50000
1e-04

1e-06

1e-08

δE
1e-10

1e-12

1e-14

1e-16
0.1 1 10

^m^Sd = 2 (+*  *C_


t

 5^Z3š6 4<T)+0E[; dy+D6\


5    =  
~‰ *D; -0>0HA2y*>0EŠ6[H @D>D* 3a4)6S4D87EGT,F; E[2y*D8 2y*)6 4L>0FG=?H.J H
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1DH0+.HAd 49354D8,^

k)tnm N UN2 492/b >TQcUN:5D76G2 pmH$M J$@cR<I365@KpLM/UN:N49:NM/65Q D7>Gp‘w’ “ ‘w’ y {s z{| UN:NM WG^+:<M/= > UN2 4927VWJB>T@
UN49:/69;/69>492+*”Cp :_UN49?7Ae492 = = 2\2/UN: V8/R<>G;/>6G2 @eJ]6G:}2 49^S>GQK:  $0 '[ G *
# #%#$#$#$#$#%#$#$#$#$#%#$#$#$#$#%#$#$#$#$#%#$#$#%#%#$#%#$#%#$#%#$#%#$#%#$#%#$#%#$#%#%#$#$#%#%#$#$#%#%#$#$#%#
# | ('*)$ !*+9 ' .'%0,12 5!,+%A 2  :<;(2 !  3 .$J%: 0$0 !" '*
8 .%:<;&)  ? '*  2  ‘ 8 ;&)&2%n= ’ 8%$(!4> 2 ? ' 

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A ( '*)$ !*+- 0$' M.'%0,12


: +%A 0&:J&:  ;N'D;(2
:C;  2 )&2 |
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2 ! 0 Q sCt”“bswv‡“ € ~ t‰“ €Aƒwt

:C;  2 )&2 y s{z{| y “ | yL•`– z
2 ! 0 Q s‡†l|ˆ “ € ~ † |ˆ “ €Cƒ
a› † |ˆ
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2 ! 0 Q a›
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J$' +$+ 'D; E A7!  !,+ . E ' + 2 ) ! M ‰t “' 2+ ) ‰! “ ) !*$+ +N!‰“U! M t‰“ ' + 2) ! M wt ƒ‰“ ' + 2 ) !wƒ
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P S
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' + 2 ) {! ƒ F ' + 2 ) ! Q ' + 2 ) !
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A N:<; RQ “ S ) !*+$+7!F S{“ ) !,+%+7!‰“ S ! M tF Sw“ ! M t
A N:<; RQ “%bS z ;  2 y s{z{| y “bsCt‰“bsAv‡“ € ~ t”“ €Aƒ{t
PS
&2 ! ‡  †U‰ T “VwQ ˆ y swz{| y “bsLt‰“bswv‡“l€ ~ t‰“ €Cƒ{t
A N:<; RQ “%SW 'X y  2 A . FYS{“ y swz{| y
A N:<; RQ “%bS s : + 2 P • ;Z:  : ! 0 sCt4F
S{“bsCt‰“%S v :<; ! 0 swv%F[Sw“bswv
A N:<; RQ “%S € ~ † sLtLˆ,F[{S “l€ ~ t‰“$S €Aƒ † sCt ˆ,F[S{“ €Cƒ{t
# s? 2 # ! 0%J 8 0 !" : 'D; P
| yL•`– z&FO|
J ! 0$0 ‘{’ †ls“ € ~ l“ €Aƒ‰“bsCt”“bswv‡“ € ~ t‰“ €Aƒwt‰“ y swzw| y “ | yL•`– z=ˆ
# 3*8%A%8% P
' A 2*; † 8 ;Z: F ~{~ “G : 0 2 F[S 0$'X !" Sˆ
K%N:  2 † ~{~ “ Qwˆ S/5!*+%A 2  :<;72 !

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K%N:  2 † ~{~ “ Qwˆ S ' + 2 ) ! M t$F S{“ ' + 2) ! M t‰“%S ' + 2 ) !$F wS “ ' + 2 ) ‰
! “
Q S ) !,+$+7!$F S{“ ) !,+$+7!”“$S ! M tF {S “ ! M t
' 9: F ~ “ y s{z{| yj}=~
z ;(2$)$6 F t  T"5CtQ €Cƒ † : ˆQ`€Aƒ † : ˆ } t  T"5Lt(Q ' + 2 ) ! M twƒQ € ~ † : ˆ%Q € ~ † : ˆ
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2*; $ '
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# $# #$#$#%#$#$#$#$#%#$#$#$#$#%#$#$#$#$#%#$#$#$#$#%#$#%#$#%#$#%#$#%#%#$#$#%#%#$#$#%#%#$#$#%#%#$#$#&#$#$#$#&#$#
# s? 2 G 8 ;BJ  : 'D;B. G ~ “GAƒ †4“ ~ “CƒLˆIA ('*1B:  2   6 ? 2 8 . 2 
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: +%A 0&:J&:  ;N'D;(2
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J$' +$+ 'D; E A7!  !,+ . E ' + 2 ) ! M ‰
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5
6.29
3.15
4 1.57
0.32

0
x

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
0 2 4 6 8 10

^m^Sd = 2 (+* ?2C_


t

( =IF354R3aU<T,*9;S6 @93aE[2D6[H.U  ; -<T,H.U


V
2y*`6[H,T`*D;S>0H<T92 /A-B6[*,10*<T<6\]6 @ >0E *,+.-.3A€0E[354
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2y*

J<2y*9‹?H.; Ec6 2y/.F[8 6<2y>0F8 6[H.U:3aU<T<6 Ec1DE3˜6S@Š*9+0-.3A€.E354D8 >0E e l wQh0„^


g

pC2 27UN:/69>b WGJB= 2/6G2 H2 Q D7:7D56T2 @ J 6T2^m^Sd = 276T2 (+* ?2 [(+*-, ,[* ^E6G: ^m^Sd/= 2 (+* ?2
UN2 492/698 49:N; = > 698= >h69I5X<2 JB8i2/UN?6985DgHI/J$8iUN:NM8R[Q D78 JB82/UN:NJSXNWhD9D7M/6G2 @L^+|{45Q~p
6G2/b I7D56|{J$8\AB@-2 / I  r J 698}H$I JB8 UN:NM}6T:qJB; J 698 = 2 6G2/b 25D76"zD7>h6T2 @= > >R V>65@ZR[I
HeVPQ D7|DL= >{6G: ^S49?7D7: U b I/6G:Np AB@c2 /  *`>R V>h65@cR<d3= >GQc|{JB8 6G:NMOU b I/6G:NM p H2 Q D/>gf
ž

6G2 @5J 6G: ^m^Sd = 2 (+* /, />#D5zo8 >GF9I 4"698 JB8L698 r p UN>G45@-?Nf9:NM i6G:NM3?N49:<M 6T27b I7D56G|{JB8 p ')f587bS*
ž

6G:<M :N45QKJ$= 276T:Np J]6G:7D')JBM7D/0 8 =N@ 6G:7D7>T@-f9d ?N49:[0 2/UN? 6T: JBM7D569>hb >J]69d 27UN?<J+X<>JB8 p / J 6G:

^m^Sd = 2q(+*-, ,[* pC: >hD}b ?7AS| JB^Sd = 2}UN49: R[;7U 69>T@]2/UN? 698 ^m^SWJB8 ' (+*c( 2 0 6987D_: UN:[Qc2
  X)    Vw4 ‰     
    
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15
6.29
3.15
1.57
0.32
10

0
v

-5

-10

-15
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

^m^Sd = 2 (+*-,6C_
x

 

( 6S; H 2yb 3˜6[H ; HR6\}T ‹abD35Ec\}T 2y* 6YH<T*D;S>0H<T92 /A-`6[*91D*,T 6[\]6S@ >0E *,+.-03€0E3a4 2W*
V V
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J<2y*D‹aH.; Ec6<2 /AF8–6<2y>0F8B6YH0U!35U,T 6 Ec10E3š6 @“*9+0-.3A€.E354D8 >DE–e l g *D; *,6 49; H.C9>0ER6S4,TZC,+.*9; 4

Ec1D/AU93š6 @:3š6[Hs r˜† v g%sui†ˆi0v 3š6[H,T:H0+0HAd HŠ/A*,6[*91D@ E[2A3˜6[HZ35CD3š6 49>0* 2y*:k ^


z V V

Ae49I H$:<M/= > J]698…= :N49Hd


    „ /  % ' ([* U ( 0
B r  ž
 

pC:Yf9>F7Q = Whb :Npm698 pm>F5Q~Je|{JB8 pm6G: UN: V>h69>TQ 6G2 @ J]6G:7D3:N47@ 5?5D765@K:…I F9:7D72 >#D5z J 6G:7D R<I7V>gf
6T: 6G: UN: V>h6T:N; = > 6G: 2 45@~J 69>45?e*`UN2 492/UNI5D7| JB^SWGJB8 UN45:/XNb WUN>G@7?/65@7:[@7f5;/: UN:<JB?/69876of
>Gp…>GQ D72 @ QKJB>Gp R[2 @ :<@ = >h6945d/J$>G@KpYUN49WUN>G@D72 X<45QKJBR<:7D56G2 @PUNI7D5| J]698}f5@-27ASzD/@~:  * Ÿ

 @= >h6945d/J$>G@Kp\Ae@-2 6987D -UN>45Q~:Nf9:  kUN2 Q-4 D/:5D76G2 @]= >694"zD56T2/p\6G:o^S49?7D7:s= >6G2 F9; f9; :
f5@-2 f9:/^e@ZR<zD 2/R<49?/6G2/6|D ' [ 9 0mJ 6987DY6949:7^e@-I   ' XNbS* ^m^+d = 2(+*  2 0*
 
Ÿ

pCWb :Np JB8 = 27D565@cR<?\>TQ D72 @+D72…= >hb >69d/J$:NM = >C6G: ^m^Sd = 2…([* , 6…J 6G:_: UN:<Q~:XNb WhUN:<M/= >
6987D 6945:7^e@-I…6G:<M…JBM J 69d = 2/6G:Np3J 6T:\^+z{49: 6|D…H$I JB>h| D
$pC: JB; J]698/= 2 AB@-2 
 3
R<2/6T27b d/Ae>G@J 6T: JB8 = >GQK:  9 ! 9 mAB@-2_: UN:<@-2 f9d/UN:769> 65@-= d\698 p J]6G27V>G49I p / $* pC:qJB8 = >GQ~: œ

2 M/69?\AB@-26T:}JB; J 698 = 2 >GQ D72 @BWhD72 p ->b/R[M/J]69d p  ' `t SS y `t m S w/y#0*


^E698 J$M5D/W^S>G@-2 UN49:NJeVWh6T:NM = >{6987DO>F9| 69>45@cR<d f5;5D/2/= 83R<2 @ = >b >6G:N; = > 6985D 2/UN? R<o4 f
2y*L6 4<T*9/.;<d €.E[2y*H
+.E;<d +06\
 ; H08
35@Š>0*98`4ŠJ 2W*9‹?H0; bŠE[d T,*026 Ec6 ; 2W>D>0FGT,4^
6\}T‹?b93aEc\}TE[d T<*02 H  ; H.8  =
6\}TL=IF35Ec\}T AH0; > }TAj *,1D1Db3š6 4<T
9,
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10
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1

1
Amplitude

0.1

0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

^m^Sd = 2 (+*-,#O_
t

H +01Db96[H.8Z6[*91Db,T 6[\ 35498


V
2y*6[H<TŒ*9; >DH,T92 A
/ -~6[*,10*<T<6\]6 @>0E“*9+0-.3A€.E354
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2y*ŒJ<2 
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wQh 0„^R‰ *9; *96S4D;SH.CD>DE`6 4<T“Ec/0=IEc6 2y/.@

>0E[d \ 354:6[H.U:+01Db,6YH0UD8 >0E 6[H  ; -<T,H?^

K@ JB8 6T:NM JBM J 69d = 2/6G:<p JB>E2 M769d+*qpC: UN4"z 6T: UN:<M UN2/4527698 49:<;/= > J 6T:^m^Sd = 2 ([* ,/(3>TQ D72 @
?/65@6G:nJB; J 698 = 2 = >h69Io2/UN?n=N@c2sUN2/45:Nf5@cR<doR<2/69I J 6T2 JB8i' S ytnKL…ThiNoKjS …S t`SgN 0 8o: UN:[Qc2
>F52/4969I76T2 @ 2/UN? 65@Kp\2 49^e@cR<Wp_JBM7D9Vd/R<>Gp ]R<2/6G2/b d7Ae>T@ JB>…=NQ-2 J]6G27V>G49d R<2/69I J 6T2/J$8q8
: UN:<Q-2 f9>#D}>F92 4"69I/6G2 @P2/UN? 65@Kp2 49^e@cR<WpJ$M5D5Vd/R<>p7*^E698qJ$M7ASR<>R<45@-= W#D/8 UN>45QcU 6G|{JB8
2 M/69?qUN49:/XNb WhUN>6G2 @ >G;7R[:5b 2 2/UN? 65@Kp ^m^SWJB>T@Kp ')(+*c( † 0 i' ([*-(2 0k? UN:NMq2 H$:<;q:<@ >ROf

V>65@ZR[:<Q/?N49:<@/ABQ D7:NM7D 2 = >hb 8/69W:<@  >hU<@cR<492/69>TQ7: ?N49:Np    698 p')(+* U 6 0* 69>hb >M/6T2 Q~:Np
Ÿ

= UN:N49>TQSD72AS452/H$69>GQ$J 698…= :N49Hd


E  r5 EC mTOw …     E 
Ÿ Ÿ
ž ž  ž

r ! #
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ž

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ž
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r
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r
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pC87D…UN2/4527UNI7D5|lJB^SWJ$8…6987D…>U<@~XN>#X<2 @czD7:<M/= > J]6G: ^m^Sd = 2 ( -`, U\?NUN:NM = >b >h69I = >36985D
>F5I/49698/J$8 6T:NM U b I76T:NM p r   2/UN?s698 AS|D/@-2/R<doJBM ^[D7?/69876T2 698/p}>GF"| 69>45@cR<d p}f9; f
Ÿ

D72 = 8 p  pCWhb :Np = >hb >69I/= >\6987D 6949:/^e@cIs6G:NMsJ$M/J]69d = 276T:Np_J 6G: ^+z{49: 6G|D HI/J$>h|
D 
ž

132/4527698 49:<;/= >E6987D ;/UN2/45F98 >b/R[M/J]69d AB@-2 6T:…JB; J 698 = 72  f587 b 6987D ;7UN2 49F58 M/UN?7^+|{49:NM
 
   L      
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 q ‰  ",
 2

10
2
4 ω02 - (2 π/T)

1 10

^m^Sd = 2 (  ,/,A_
γ2


( +.E;<d H0J H.8 6[*91Db,T 6[\ 35498 2y*6YH<Tn*9; >0H<T92 A
/ -’6[*,10*<T<6\]6 @ >DE&*,+.-.3A€0E[354 2W*
V V
  


J<2y*D‹aH.; Ec6<2 /AF8Œ6 2y>0F8Œ6[H.U 35U<T<6 Ec1DE[3š6 @ *9+0-.3€0E3a498 >DEe l g wQh .„A^ 6YH0UD8~b H<T,E8~Ec+A2 1DF

 

H.UD>DE:6<2 8:/A*,6 b,1D1D491DE8B+0H.35-96S496SE[8 2y* 6S4 ; *D‹?2 /A@)Ec+A2 €0Ec€0*Ddy\ 354!6S4D8 d 35\ 35498 ^ Xj}J 4,15^
V V V
9eNl 

s x 
v¡f–g f  Žf,^ *“3a49>0E[dy*ZEYd T,*D2ŽHA2š>0Ec6 ; @935EY2 8BEGT n4“EU,=?E[dW* ; *9>0>D@ E[d T,*02Ž47=IEc\ ; 4,6<2 /A@
V
+.; -9€01DE?4jAJ 4,1a^]4:J<2y* }T92 H087g r
V

UNI7D5| J 6T:5D : UN:[QK:R[@ D7d/6T2 @N6G:…JB; J]698/= 2 ?/6T25D   3 :…: UN:<Q~:Np >GQ D72 @N27D7>GF9I 4"698/6G:Np
6G|D\2/45^S@cRNzD\J$M5D5V8/RNzD
^E6987D…UN>47QZU 6G|{JB8_2/M/69d: >b R<M J 69d p >GQ D72 @$R<2 = UN;7b 8 =N@c2 pœ

f5@-I J 6T2 JB8 pLJB>m25D765Q V>GJB8 = >m6987D3UN>G45QcU 6|{JB8 UN:NM f5>#D W^S:NM = >L>F9| 69>45@cR<d f9;7D72 = 8 R<2 @
:}>hb R<M J]69d/p >TQ D72 @B= 8 f9>#D/:Nf5@-I J 6G2/6T: JB8 = >TQK:o' XN b ^m^Sd/= 2\(  ,6 0 

  )
    1 
   % "%'&   (
  ),+ 

 D ! - & .  

^E6987D…UN2 49I/AS452/H:}2/M/69d V&2\= >hb >69d/J$:NM = >OWhD72\= 8\AS452/= =N@cR<? f5M5D/2/=N@cR<?}JB; J]698/= 2…= >
= 8 f 69>h6945@-= = W#D/>p @-f5@-?/698/69>p  2 27D72/R<2/b ; $:NM = >mU |{p UN:5b b I >#D7f5@-2 H$WG49:7D56G2Yf9M7D72 =N@cR<I
JBM J]69d/= 2/6T2 J 698 H;/J$8# UN2 4 =7?7b : UN:NMY8 R[Q D78 JBd 6T:NM pCR<27V:<45Q9>h6T2 @[2/UN?YD569>h69>G49=N@ D/@KJCf

65@cR<:N; p D/?N= :NM p R<2 @Bf5>#D…M7UNI 49^S>T@SUN49?/XNb 8 = 2…2/45^+d p D/2 UN49:NJBf5@~:N45@KJ]69>GQ8…R<2/69I J 6G2 JBd
6T:NM p\JB>2 M7V2 Q-49>h6T:NM p^S49?7D7:NM p_f9>f9:<= W#D5|Dq6G|D 2/45^S@cRNzD JBM7D9V8/RNzD/]8 JBM = UN>47@ f
"(
 6   
-     > 

1
x0=1 v0=0
x0=0 v0=1
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
x(t)

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

^m^Sd = 2 (  ,/(A_
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