An Evaluation of The Participation and Contribution of Female Architects in Ghana.

KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,
KUMASI, GHANA
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND BUILT ENVIRONENT
FACULTY OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
EVALUATING THE PARTICIPATION AND CONTRIBUTION OF WOMEN IN
ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE IN GHANA
BY
ASSAN ANGELA AFUA
(20535303)
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE,

COLLEGE OF ART AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
DEGREE IN ARCHITECTURE
OCTOBER 2021
DECLARATION PAGE
I hereby declare that this dissertation, with the exception of quotations and references
contained published works which have all been identified and acknowledged, is entirely
my own original work to the best of my knowledge and has not been submitted, either in
part or whole, for another degree elsewhere.
I hereby declare that I have personally done this study.
Assan Angela Afua (9130317) ………………. ………………..
(Student) (Signature) (Date)
Certified By:
Mrs. Christina Asmah ………………. ………………..
(Supervisor) (Signature) (Date)
Certified By:
Prof. Christian Koranteng ………………. ………………..
(Head of Department) (Signature) (Date)
ii
ABSTRACT
Female underrepresentation is an essential issue in Architecture which needs to be
tackled in relation to the Sustainable development goal 5 which focuses on achieving
gender equality and empower all women and girls. This research was aimed to
examine the roles of female architects as well as ways they contributed towards the
industry. The research objectives are to: examine the influence of role models in
female architects' success rates; identify critical issues pertaining to job seeking and
promotion for women in Architectural firms; evaluate the level of women's
representation in architectural practice and education in Ghana; assess women's
participation in the architectural profession and suggest ways to enhance it. The
research used structured questionnaires, both closed and open-ended as well as
interviews to achieve the aim of the study. The data collected were analyzed using
descriptive statistical tools as well as inferential statistical tools for comparative
analysis. Some of the findings found were that; female architects are
underrepresented in terms of managerial positions in Architectural firms; the issue of
gender disparity was on the low in Architecture in Ghana; role models increased the
success rate of female architects in Ghana and finally, the overall performance of
women in firms was good. The research concludes women have made significant
contributions in Architecture but are greatly underrepresented in terms of numbers
and positions in firms and that once there was an increase in the numbers, it was
going to reflect in the level of representation in firms. The practical implications of
the findings from the study will help elevate women in Architectural practice in
Ghana as well us aid in their visibility.
Keywords- participation, contribution, Architectural practice.

iii
TURNITIN REPORT
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I thank the Almighty Lord for providing me with the grace, wisdom,
and strength necessary to complete this dissertation. My outmost appreciation also goes
to my parents, for making resources, both financially and spiritually available me for the
success of this assignment. My heartfelt appreciation and gratitude go out to the firms
and architects who took time out of their busy schedules to participate in the study;
without their input, this would not have been possible. And lastly, I am eternally
thankful for my Supervisor Mrs. Christina Asmah for her patience, advice and guidance
during the period of this study and making it a success.
v
DEDICATION
This study is in honor of all female architects in Ghana and their daily strive to make
Architecture more inclusive for the upcoming female architects. This is also a dedication
to my parents, Mr. Samuel Assan and Mrs. Benedicta Assan for their immense support,
prayers and encouragement throughout my education.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION………………………………………………………………...........-ii-
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………..........-iii-
TURNITIN REPORT………………………………………………………................-v-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………………………...............-vi-
DEDICATION…………………………………………………………….................-vii-
TABLE OF CONTENT……………………………………………………..........…-vii-
LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………..........…-viii-
LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………...........……ix-
CHAPTER ONE……………………………………………………………............…-1-
1.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………...............…-1-
1.1 Background ……………………………………………………………...............…-1-
1.2 Research Problem ………………………………………………………….....……-3-
1.3 Problem Statement…………………………………………………………….....…-4-
1.4 Research Aim …………………………………………………………...........…….-5-
1.5 Research Questions……………………………………………………................…-5-
1.6 Research Objectives ……………………………………………………………..…-6-
1.7 Scope of Study ………………………………………………………………..........-6-
1.8 Research Methodology …………………………………………………….....……-6-
1.9 Justification ……………………………………………………………...............…-6-
1.10 Limitation, Delimitations and Assumptions of Study ……………………....……-7-
1.10.1 Limitations ……………………………………………………………...........…-7-
1.10.2 Assumptions ……………………………………………………….........………-8-
1.11 Research Outline ……………………………………………………….....………-8-
1.12 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………..............…-8-
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………...............……-10-
2.1 Historical Background of Women in Architecture ……………………...………-10-
2.2 The level of Representation of Women in Architecture ………………….........…-11-
2.3 Family-Architecture Conflict ……………………………………......................…-13-
2.4 Gender Disparity ……………………………………………………….....………-13-
2.5 Barriers to Participation of Female Architects …………………………...………-15-
2.6 Employment and Wage Gap ……………………………………………….......…-16-
2.7 Architectural Education ……………………………………………………..……-17-
2.8 Essence of Architectural Role Models ……………………………………………-18-
2.9 Progression of Women in Architecture ……………………………………......…-19-
2.10 Contribution of Women in Architecture …………………………………...……-20-
2.11 Methods …………………………………………………………................……-20-
2.11.1Interview…………………………………………………………..................…-20-
2.12 Definition of Keywords ………………………………………………....………-21-
2.13Conclusion…………………………………………………………..............……-21-
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………….................……-22-
3.1 Research approach ……………………………………………………......………-22-
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3.2 Research Strategy ………………………………………………………….......…-22-
3.3 Data Source ………………………………………………………….................…-23-
3.4 Respondents ……………………………………………………................………-23-
3.5 Sample size determination …………………………………………..……………-23-
3.6 Sampling Technique …………………………………………...…………....……-24-
3.7 Data Collection …………………………………………………………...........…-25-
3.8 Data Collection Instruments …………………………………………………...…-25-
3.9 Design of Research Instrument …………………………………………………...-27-
3.10 Data Analysis …………………………………………………………............…-27-
3.11 Ethical Considerations ……………………………………………......…………-27-
3.12 Chapter Summary ……………………………………………………….........…-28-
CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………….................……-29-
4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ……………………………….…...-29-
4.2 Level of Representation of Female Architects …………………………...…....…-31-
4.2.1 Positions occupied by Females at the Workplace ………………………………-31-
4.2.2 Years of Work Experience of Women ……………………………………….…-33-
4.2.3 Statistical Relationship Between the “Position of Women at the Workplace” and
the “Years of Work Experience”. …………………………………….....................…-34-
4.6.3.1 Inferential Results ………………………………………….............................-34-
4.3 Level of Transparency in Employment and Promotion ……………………..........-35-
4.3.0 Promotion of Female Architects ……………………………...………...........…-36-
4.3.1 Frequency of Women Being Promoted in Architecture …………………..……-37-
4.3.2 Deprivation of Job Opportunity …………………………………………...........-37-
4.3.3 Workplace Incentives and Workplace Privileges ………………………………-38-
4.3.4 Transparency of Job Openings ………………………………………............…-40-
4.3.5 Difference in Income Level ……………………………………….................…-40-
4.3.6 Workplace Satisfaction………………………………………….........................-41-
4.3.7 Criteria for Selecting Job Applicants …………………………………...........…-42-
4.4 Essence of Role Models ………………………………………..........................…-43-
4.4.0 Gender of Role Model ………………………………….........................………-43-
4.4.1 Effectiveness of Role Model ……………………………………....................…-45-
4.4.2 Statistical Relationship Between the “Gender of Role Model” and the “Level of
Effectiveness”. ……………………………………..............................................……-46-
4.6.2.1 Inferential Results ……………………………………….............................…-46-
4. 5 Attainment of Higher Education ………………………………………............…-48-
4.5.0 Furthering of Education for Female Architects. …………………………..……-49-
4.5.1 Challenges Pertaining to The Attainment of Higher Education …………..……-50-
4.5.2 Area of Specialization …………………………………….............................…-51-
4.6 Contributions of Women ………………………………….........................…...…-52-
4.6.1 Assigned Duties ………………………………………...................................…-52-
4.6.2 Working Hours ……………………………………....................................……-53-
4.6.3 Family-Architectural Practice Conflict …………………………………………-54-
4.6.4 The Balancing of Family and Architecture for Women in Architectural Practice.....-55-
4.6.5 A Comparative Test of The Ability To “Balance Work and Family” and the Level
at Which “Family Interrupts Work” …………………..…………………...............…-56-
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4.6.5.1 Inferential Results ……………………………………….................................-56-
4.6.6 Performance of Women ………………………………………….......................-58-

4.6.7 A Comparative Test to Determine the Association Between “Frequency of Female
Promotion” and Their “Performance in Architecture”. ………………………………-59-
4.6.7.1 Inferential Results ………………………………………….............................-59-
4.6.8 Female Architects‟ Opinions on How Women in Architectural Practice in Ghana
are Contributing. …………………………………………...........................................-61-
4.7 Chapter Summary …………………………………….............….....…..............-62-
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction ………………………………………...................................…..........-63-
5.2 Summary of Findings …………………………………….......................……......-63-
5.2.1 Level of Representation of Women…………………………...…………….......-63-
5.2.2 Level of Transparency in Employment and Promotion ………………………...-6-
5.2.3 Essence of Role Models ………………………………….........................……..-64-
5.2.4 Contributions of Women ………………………………………….....................-65-
5.3 Recommendations …………………………………………...................................-65-
5.3.1 Assess the essence of role models in the success rate of female architects..........-66-
5.3.2 Find critical issues pertaining to job seeking and promotion for women in
Architectural firms.........................................................................................................-66-
5.3.3 To review the level of representation of women practicing Architectural practice
and education in Ghana..................................................................................................-67-
5.3.4 To evaluate the participation of women in Architectural practice and ways to
enhance their participation.............................................................................................-67-
5.4 Conclusion …………………………………………..............................................-67-
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................-68-
APPENDIX ..................................................................................................................-71-
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1: Age Distribution of Respondents ……………………………..................-30-

Figure 4.2: Positions Occupied by Female Architects in Firms…………………........-32-
Figure 4.3: Years of Work Experience of Female Architects ……………...................-33-
Figure 4.4: Promotion Occurrence of Female Architects. …………............................-36-
Figure 4.5: Deprivation of Job Opportunity for Female Architects……………..........-38-
Figure 4.6: Enjoyment of Workplace Incentives of Female Architects……………....-39-
Figure 4.7: Enjoyment of Workplace Privileges of Female Architects…………….....-39-
Figure 4.8: Transparency of job openings (male respondents) ………………………-40-
Figure 4.9: Difference in Income level in Firms.………………………………..........-41-
Figure 4.10: Workplace Satisfaction of Female Architects…………………………...-42-
Figure 4.11: Criteria for Selecting Job Applicants………………………………........-43-
Figure 4.12: Gender of Role Model………………………………...............................-44-
Figure 4.13: Effectiveness of Role Models………………………………...................-46-
Figure 4.14: Interest in the Attainment of Higher Education ………….......................-49-
Figure 4.15: Challenges Hindering the Attainment of Higher Education of Female....-51-
Figure 4.16: Assigned Works of Female Architects......................................................-53-
Figure 4.17: Family-Architectural Practice Conflict.....................................................-54-
Figure 4.18: Balancing of family and Architectural practice........................................-56-
Figure 4.19: Performance of Women in Firms .............................................................-59-
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Data requirement and collection method……………………………..........-26-

Table 4.1 Educational Background of respondents……………………………….......-30-
Table 4.2: Comparing the association of the position of women and their years of work
experience……………………………..............………………………………............-35-
Table 4.3: Frequency of women being promoted..............…………………......…..…-37-
Table 4.4: Comparing how the “gender of role model” is associated to the “effectiveness
of role model”. ………………………………..............………………………………-48-
Table 4.5: Comparing how the ability to “balance family and work” is associated to the
level at which “family interrupts work”. ………………………………......................-58-
Table 4.6: A comparative test to determine the association between “frequency of female
promotion” and their “performance”. ………………………………..........................-61-
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
Although in the past the role of women in has been undermined, these days women
have contributed immensely to various sectors globally including architecture as a
profession. In Ghana, the status of women in Architectural practice and profession have
elevated over the past few years. This status is manifested in an increase in female
admission rates to architecture schools, which has resulted in a relative increase in the
number of women working in the field. Although there has been an increase in numbers,
female architects are still underrepresented in terms of numbers in contrast to their male
counterparts. The existence of successful female architects such as Zaha Hadid, Denise
Scott Brown and our very own Nana Akua Biremah is a confirmation that women have
and are still making meaningful contributions to Architecture and the built environment
but how often are these women noticed for the roles they play in the field? The goal of
this research is to assess the involvement and contribution of women in Architectural
practice in Ghana.
1.1 Background
It has been demonstrated that women clearly had played and still continue to play a
principal part within the world of Architecture (Cole, 1973). Women‟s involvement in
engendering the built environment has taken multiple forms. The chronicles of the
participation of women in architecture around the world has been remarkably
diversified, and the manner of this involvement has been based on place, custom and
time (Walker, 2000). According to Greed (2000), women make up 6% of the workforce,
whereas men make up 94% in management.
1
A study by Adams and Tancred in 2000 revealed that, women have made significant
and unacknowledged contributions to the field's key fields, and can be credited with
introducing and improving creative and transformative approaches to practice and
architecture. Appointments with clients and project deadlines require lengthy working
hours in a day disadvantaging woman with family responsibilities (Fowler and Wilson,
2004). Geographical limits, familial duties, guilt, and discrimination all impede women's
success in their careers (Adusah-Karikari, 2008).
There are three Architectural productions which are the architectural office which
houses and organizes architectural work and processes of making decisions, the building
site and the Architectural media which also comes in the form of magazines, exhibitions,
conferences, academia and many more (Burns, 2013). While the impression of a male
Architect might be that of unarguably good preference and fancy lifestyle, the image of
that of the women Architect is not so cut out (Stead, 2016).
Women's participation in the construction sector must be increased in order for the
industry to continue to progress in the long run due to a consistent supply of labor
(Barnabas et al; 2009). Once this stereotyping against female Architects is abandoned,
the occupation will be abode to more persons with creative and peculiar ideas (Afzal,
2016).
Women displayed academic profile and they were mainly wage earners with more
by chance employment. The range of women's successful participation in Portuguese
jurisdiction is essential in the early stages of a project from identification, involvement
and assessment (Antunes, 2018).
2
The percentage of women studying Architecture is now much higher, for instance in
2016 collected in Germany about half of the students in architecture courses were
women representing 58%. Against this data, the question arises as to which route women
studying Architecture take after the completion of the studies (Technical University of
Munich, 2019). In the department of Architecture, K.N.U.S.T the entire teaching staff
comprises of only three female lecturers. The enrolment rate of females in the
department has increased but the ratio between the female students and student is
roughly 1:50.
Although there is an increase awareness of gender disparity, it is yet to be seen if culture
and work practices caused by indirect kinds of prejudice have been overcome. (Dainty
and Lingard, 2000). To conclude, despite the global expansion of tertiary education
systems, participation rates among women in S&T higher education and in the academic
workforce have substantially lagged behind their male counterparts (David, 2011).
1.2 Research Problem
The contributions and participation of women in Architecture is not a topic often spoken
about. The Architectural sector has become very competitive over the period of time and
it is about time the role women play in it and how they have influenced the built
environment is assessed.
According to Civici and Yemiscioglu (2021), gender-based hurdles conceived in the
configuration as glass ceilings impedes the career development process of female
architects. Glass ceiling is an artificial barrier which blocks the path of professional
experts by making it invisible (Dainty and Lingard, 2006) and as Morgan (2015) stated,
3
the concept of the glass ceiling as a form of limitation was mostly faced by women
employees.
For several years, the Architects' Journal has been advocating to improve the position of
women in the field. Their studies have discovered there is a widely held belief that
employers do not provide equal possibilities for career progression to women and men in
the field of architecture, even among men. (RIBA, 2018).
Although women in Architectural practice have seen tremendous transformation in the
field, it is no longer about the equality but identifying the issues and solutions for the
involvement of females in Architecture (Gupta, 2014)
1.3 Problem Statement
The participation and the trend women follow in architectural practice is not quite
mapped out and their contributions need to be acknowledged and commended. In 1991,
Denise Scott-Brown was not nominated for the Pritzker Architecture Prize, which was
given solely to her design colleague and husband Robert Venturi in recognition of their
collaborative efforts. This shows how women have been overlooked in the past.
As per a study conducted by Blau and Kahn in 2006, promotion rates are higher for men
than are for women and this was supported by a study by Fowler and Wilson (2004)
which stated that, far more men than women were senior partners, owners or sole
principals of a practice. Women have experienced less freedom to shape the built
environment (Walker, 2000).
4
1.4 Research Aim
The study is aimed at mapping out the roles of women in Architectural practice in Ghana
and how they have contributed towards Architectural practice in Ghana.
1.5 Research Questions
1. How do female role models influence the success of practicing female
Architects?
2. What is the level of transparency in employment and promotion for women at the
workplace?
3. What is the level of representation of women in Architectural practice and
Architectural education in Ghana?
4. How can the influence of women be felt in the practice with the roles they play
in Architecture?
1.6 Research Objectives
This research seeks specifically to
1. Examine the influence of role models in female architects' success rates.
2. Identify critical issues pertaining to job seeking and promotion for women in
Architectural firms.
3. Evaluate the level of women's representation in architectural practice and
education in Ghana.
5
4. Assess women's participation in the architectural profession and suggest ways to
enhance it.
1.7 Scope of Study
This research would be approached from a global perspective and will be narrowed
down geographically to specific regions in Ghana. Questionnaires will be sent out to
various Architectural firms in the country and even though the research focuses on
women in architecture, the questionnaires will be filled in by both male and female so
that we understand issues from both points of view.
1.8 Research Methodology
The research was be conducted using the mixed method approach. It comprised of
structured questionnaires which were administered to various firms in the country.
Interviews were undertaken to gain deeper insights and also attain enriched data thereby,
making data collated qualitative. The target respondents were women practicing
Architecture as well as males in managerial positions.
1.9 Justification
The United Nations General Assembly established the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) in 2015, with the goal of achieving them by 2030. Gender equality is the focus
of the fifth objective, SDG 5. "Achieve gender equality and empower all women and
girls" is the mission statement for the SDG 5. The SDG 5 has nine objectives, but the
research will focus on two of them: guaranteeing full participation of women in
leadership and decision-making, and eliminating all kinds of discrimination against all
6
women and girls worldwide. This issue was chosen to empower female architects and
guarantee gender equality in the industry, as the SDG goals must be reached by 2030.
Also, there was a need for this study because various researches have been undertaken in
the past pertaining to gender inequality in Architecture but not so many particularly on
the role and contributions of women in practice. This research is aimed to give voice,
space and elevation to women. The clarification of the constraints on women in
Architecture will broaden the knowledge on the topic for the general public, their peers
and Architecture students, especially the female ones to brace them for their future as
professional Architects.
1. 10 Limitation and Assumptions of Study
1.10.1 Limitations
The busy schedules of architects especially during the approach of project deadlines was
a limitation since it led to a low rate of response. Consequently, the inability to get the
contact list of firms or architects from the ARC or GIA due to privacy issues resulted in
the bulk of the contacts retrieved from the internet being unavailable or incorrect, which
7
contributed to the poor response rate. Also, the lack of related studies led to majority of
the data coming from other countries.
1.10.2 Assumptions
1. Due to the sensitivity of the subject, there is a reluctance to be forthcoming and
totally transparent with responses from some male participants.
2. Participants may decline to speak out against their organizations in some
situations.
1.11 Research Outline
The study is structured into five chapters and are as follow.
The stages of the entire research are described in the research process. The research's
aim is clearly indicated in the introduction, as are the questions that are motivating it.
The second chapter then goes over current literature to see the view point of varying
authors on the participation and contribution of women in architectural practice around
the world, as well as in Ghana. The research methodology specifies the sort of study that
will be conducted and the procedures that will be taken to collect data from the target
group. The fourth chapter summarizes the field findings and examines, analyzes and
discusses them in order to arrive at conclusions. Finally, the findings are examined, and
recommendations for further research are given.
1.12 Conclusion
Architecture is known to be a male dominated profession”, but this statement is
outmoded. Stereotyping and misguided preconceptions of women‟s roles and abilities
8
leads to the notions that architecture is not a woman‟s job. This study will therefore
layout the roles of women in architecture and specifically, in Ghana as well as highlight
their contributions towards the field. The next stage of this study is the literature review.
9
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
In this chapter, literature on women in Architectural practice is reviewed. In depth
studies have been done by several people in relation to women in Architecture all over
the world in terms of analyzing their working conditions, pay gap between males and
females, employment prospectus and their roles in the world of Architecture that is, both
academically and professionally. The chapter two of this thesis discusses the closing of
the gap by comparing various articles written so far and fishing out if the participation
and the contribution of women in Architectural practice in Ghana have been
documented.
The issues of gender discrimination in architecture have been discussed at length over a
period of time now and it is about time the participation and contributions of these
women solely are acknowledged instead and especially the female architects in Ghana.
Furthermore, discussions and debates concerning the participation of women in the
field will be highlighted and also some methods which can be used in the data collection
of the study.
2.1 Historical Background of Women in Architecture
The world of Architecture has been dominated by men since its professionalization in
1857(Lawrence, 2014). Recent historical study on women's contributions to the built
world has pushed architectural culture to new height (Gu¨Rel and Anthony, 2006). As
per data from Architects' Registration Board (2003) and RIBA (2001), the smaller
10
proportion of women, 12% (compared to 5% in 1975), are registered Architects. Based
on studies by Willis (2009), rather than an intentional attempt to eliminate women
Architects' contributions, the dearth of depiction of women Architects in traditional
Architectural literature is a product of how Architectural history is defined and
produced.
Women's involvement in Architecture has a long and diverse history, with the extent of
this participation varying according to time, location, and culture (Walker, 2000).
Throughout the twentieth century's middle decades, women's participation in every
technical sector, not just Architecture, was diminished even more in Spain (Sanchez de
Madariaga, 2010) but according to Willis (2009), if a woman eventually achieved her
target and was registered as an Architect, the social and political environment also put
her at a disadvantage in comparison to her male counterparts.
Niculae (2012) argues that before women's timid entrance into Europe's Architectural
sector as licensed professionals in the early 20th century, male Architects advanced the
field and worked as demiurges of the human habitat, often disregarding the needs of
others, including women.
Women's presence in Architecture goes back to at least the nineteenth century in both
Europe and North America, and to the turn of the twentieth century in Latin America,
Spain, and Brazil (Merrett and Pinzon, 2017).
2.2 Women's Representation Level in Architecture

Although the industry of construction plays a major part in the development of countries
globally, with respects to women's participation in the construction industry as well as
11
their representation, women are still underrepresented in the construction industry and
that needs to be addressed. A study by Lawrence (2014) argues that there has been little
provable inquisition on the influence of mentors on the females in architecture since role
models encourage the success of women by alleviating the issues of stereotype threat.
Furthermore, although women in architectural practice have seen tremendous
transformation in the sector, it is no longer about equality but about identifying the
issues and solutions related to the participation of females in the architectural field
(Gupta, 2018). Only two female Architects have won the Pritzker Prize, in its 34 years
history (Afzal, 2016).
Niculae (2014) argues that in accordance to architectural education, the standard leans
more specifically to the male side and the increased interest in architectural practice
concerning women has decreased, therefore bringing about the importance of gender
immersion with the occupation.
Even though a lot of great women have gained full recognition in their careers and had
impinged on Architecture in Romania (Niculae, 2014), in Kumasi, a study undertaken by
Gyasi (2012) revealed that women in the construction sector in Kumasi are mostly
employed in non-construction related positions.
According to Shaw, Taylor and Harris (2000), the occupations of women have been
weighed in comparison to men's, which isn't valid. Furthermore, women's work
engagement has often been questioned due to the fact that they are not always willing to
pursue the 'traditional' paradigm of an unchanging, straight-line career path (Caven,
2004).
12
Yoshimori-Yamamoyo (2012), states that the recuperation of cultural past of women in
Architecture is significant for any future decision made by women in order to avoid the
unconscious iteration if mistakes by female Architects in the past. As statistics and
qualitative research show as per a study conducted by Sanchez de Madariaga (2010), the
'glass ceiling' that restricts women's vocational careers has nothing to do with their
credentials or professional worth.
2.3 Family-Architecture Conflict

For mothers, the difficulty to progress in Architectural profession are entirely
transparent and revolves around problems that concentrate on balancing their time
management and family devotedness (Whitman, 2005) and this is affirmed by Caven,
(2004) who believes women have had to conform their career to take on family
commitments into account.
Until the late nineteenth century, women were traditionally barred from working as
Architects due to different patriarchal social structures around the world (Walker, 2000).
2.4 Gender Disparity

Discrimination is still present concerning issues pertaining to working females and some
factors contributing primarily are stereotyping, biasness and family (Awasthi et al; 2018)
so therefore, bringing out the gender the importance of gender immersion with the
occupation is important (Niculae, 2014).
There have been several issues pertaining to gender disparity and the level of discomfort
and dissatisfaction in architectural practice, women are likely to be threatened twice as
much as well as unequipped in a male dominated profession (Fowler and Wilson ,2004).
13
A study revealed the level of satisfaction was not anticipated given the apparent gender
disparities existing within the Architectural profession (Whitman, 2005).
The declaration that women would not abandon the hearth for the sake of a profession
was not unusual among early suffragists, partially since it eased both male and female
concerns about a shift in the gender balance (Stratigakos, 2016). According to
Yoshimori-Yamamoto (2012), the disparity in Architecture can be dispatched on
reflecting on the experiences of women in Architecture from the past.
As stated by Gupta (2016), combination of factors and/or a "last straw" moment tended
to be the reasons why the professional platform in architecture is a barrier for women.
Some of the most important concerns are as follows:
 Poor pay/ difference in income
 Inequitable compensation
 Working long and exhausting hours in the architecture field
 Maintaining a healthy work-life balance
 Working hours that are inflexible/unfamiliar.
 Inadequate familiar service
 Overlooking/ Sidelining
 Restricted work areas
 Limited work areas
 Challenging working conditions
14
2.5 Barriers to Participation of Female Architects
As per a study conducted by Gupta (2016), there are five different barriers to
participation in Architecture and the relative importance of these hurdles will differ
depending on: the degree of education and training desired; the age of the woman
(young/mature); and the cultural/local environment. These barriers are:
 Cultural: Despite widely disparate circumstances, common patterns in women's
roles and status emerge across countries. They represent cultural and cross-
cultural social conventions and practices that keep women in submission.
 Attitudinal: This perceived disparities between male and female responsibilities
and capacities, which is instilled via socialization in the home and family,
reinforced through schools, vocational/career advice services, job experiences,
peer pressure, as well as a scarcity of female role models. Lack of confidence
and self-esteem is a huge hurdle in and of itself, and one that every successful
initiative in this field has deemed necessary to address directly and explicitly.
 Qualificatory: Low levels of basic education are significant hurdles that must be
addressed before addressing the particular of science/technology involvement. In
contrast, greater percentage of women are seen in scientific and engineering
courses at the university level in Northern Africa and the Mid-East than in many
western countries.
 Situational: To name a few, family obligations, lack of spouse support, financial
constraints, living in rural/isolated regions. Also, women who have their own
source of income are likewise paid less than their male colleagues on average.
15
 Institutional: These are obstacles that occur as a result of how institutions make
their programs available. Significant general obstacles that women face is
documented: set hours; significant attendance requirement; lockstep curriculum
style (makes missed sessions difficult to catch up on); a lack of child care
services; unappealing, "unfriendly" course content; a shortage of female
professors/male teachers' assumptions and attitudes; masculine orientation in
course publicity/male "image"; rigid selection and entrance standards.
2.6 Employment and Wage Gap
The TUM Department of Architecture (2019) indicates that full-time female Architects
earn 30% less than male counterparts while research conducted by Fowler and Wilson in
2004, showed that women drop out of architectural programs in the United States at a
much higher rate than males, and even though they do succeed in the profession, they
receive just 75% of what men do. As per a study conducted, far more men than women
were sole principals, owners or senior partners of a practice Fowler and Wilson (2004).
Furthermore, promotion rates for men are higher than they are for women (Blau and
Kahn, 2006).
There were only two female lecturers on the whole teaching staff, and the disparity
between female Architecture students and female staff left one asking where the females
were in the field (Amartefio, 2017). ARB (Architects Registration Board) has
approximately 32,000 registered architects, of which 25,200 are working whereas the
others are either unemployed or do not work for other causes (ARB Register and Annual
RIBA Survey of Registered Architects 2003). Furthermore, per the study by Young
16
(2003) about 13% of the total workforce is female, and 11 percent of the workforce is
part-time.
Per studies by Caven (2004) many woman Architects have opted to form fruitful
alliances with their Architects, husbands, or male or female spouses over the last 25
years. Geographical constraints, family duties, guilt, and discrimination have all
hampered their careers (Adusah-Karikari, 2008).
2.7 Architectural Education
The required time spent training and practicing prior to certification is seven years,
which includes undergraduate study, one year in an Architecture practice, a further two
years pursuing a master‟s degree or a post-graduate qualification, and prior to
certification, one year of professional (Caven, 2004).
At the entrance level of the Architecture discipline, there is a gender gap. According to
statistics from studies by Fowler and Wilson (2004), the dramatic growth in female
training enrollment between 1975 and 1985 (from 13 to 26 percent) has now slowed.
Afzal (2016) indicates in his study that in the year 1962, just three of the 22 students in
Bangladesh's first batch of Architecture students were women. The proportion of women
studying Architecture is now even higher; for example, in Germany in 2016,
approximately half of the students enrolled in Architecture courses were female,
accounting for 58 percent (TUM, 2019).
Several years ago, according to Amartefio (2017), in the Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology's Architecture Department (KNUST) located in Kumasi,
enrollment rates for females were very low since a class had at least 10 female students,
17
raises cause for concern. Lewis (1998) studies indicated that in 1998, women made up
31% of architecture students, but only around half went on to graduate school. The
absence of adequate research on female Architects in Architecture education has led to
the poor understanding of the part played by women in development as well as issues
pertaining to employment and absorption of women graduates (Gupta, 2016).
Female equity efforts have increased academic enrollment, and 42 percent of
Architecture students were female nationwide in 2012 (The National Architectural
Accrediting Board, Inc. 2012). Women accounted for only 24% of the architecture
workforce in the same year (Bureau of Labour Statistics 2012) with both studies being
conducted in the United States of America.
In India as well as other Asian nations, women make up between 25 and 50 percent of
Architectural students (Caven, 2004). Many societal matters influence the process of
higher education for women (Adusah-Karikari, 2008).
2.8 Essence of Architectural Role Models

Furthermore, by reducing the negative effects of stereotype threat, role models may
make it easier for women to enter and succeed in historically male-dominated industries
(Lawrence, 2014).
The low status of female mentors in Architecture has got nothing to do with their
incompetency but all to do their poor visibility and representation in the field and the
media can be used as a platform to enhance the visibility window for women in
Architecture (Omoyeni et al; 2019). Even though there is a shortage of female role
models in Architecture, having a role model makes the student feel that they are not
alone in the male dominated profession (Yoshimori-Yamamoto, 2012).
18
2.9 Progression of Women in Architecture
The gradual changes in globalization have led to a noticeable increase in the population
of women in the industry of construction (Adeyemi et al; 2006). According to Gupta
(2016), there is no doubt that women Architects have taken a giant leap with their
professional ambitions. Young (2000) opine those developments in culture are leading to
a shift in the establishment of a profession and that the idea of career longevity has
ceased to valid.
Along with educational constraints, women have started to put pressure on the field's
other lengthy ethnocentric mechanisms (Walker, 2000) as well as made significant and
unacknowledged contributions to the field's key findings, and can be credited with
architecture (Adams and Tancred, 2000).
Elvitigala (2006) stated that, the development of women‟s career is mainly based on the
proper training and a study by Hayden and Wright (1976) revealed also that over the last
few years, women have become far more visible than they have been in any time in
history. And also, having a role model as a student is associated to the feeling of future
career confidence in Architecture students, especially the females (Lawrence, 2014).
In the long run, economic and societal pressures may work to the advantage of women
in the sense that, there will be a need to make use of all expertise and resources (Greed,
2000).
19
2.10 Contribution of Women in Architecture
The chronicles of the involvement of women in Architecture around the world has been
remarkably diversified, and the manner of this participation has been based on place,
custom and time (Walker, 2000).
Domestic design as a field is where the greatest contributions of women have been made
according to Cole (1973). Also, successful high profile female architects are inspirations
to the younger generations in terms of becoming more visible as awesome role models.
(Duncan, 2019).
A study by Willis (1998), indicated that, the work of female architects in firms must be
an investment in the firm's output. Women oversee widening the likelihood of
cooperation beyond the traditional confines of Architecture (Walker, 2000), all the while
being softhearted and capable to associate with people at all the various levels, women
create an outgoing impact in workplaces (Afzal, 2016)
According to Yoshimori-Yamamoto (2012), In the 21st century, women in Architecture
have similar traits to their predecessors and are committed to making Architecture better
for the future generations in terms of practice, government and academia.
2.11 Research Methodology
2.11.1 Interview
After a number of pilot interviews, 10 in depth face-to-face interviews were held. These
were mainly women who were leading the profession (Caven, 2004). The semi-
structured format of the interviews allowed for more questioning based on the
20
interviewee's particular circumstances. This adaptability was crucial in establishing a
connection with the interviewee (Gupta, 2016).
2.12 Definition of Keywords
 Participation
The process during which individual or groups have an opportunity to be involved in a
project of an activity
 Contribution
The part played by a something in bringing about a result or helping something to
advance.
 Architectural practice
Any professional service or creative endeavor that necessitates formal architectural
education, expertise, or experience.
2.13 Conclusion
This Chapter reviewed literature on women in Architectural practice in terms of major
issues female architects face in relation to Architectural practice and education as well as
their progression and contributions in the field. The gap from literature was the lack of
study on the topic in relation to the contributions and roles of women in Architectural
practice in Ghana. Also, very few women are in the profession with a few less owning
their own firms. The next chapter discusses the types of methods utilized in the study's
data gathering, processing, and presentation.
21
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter was intended to clearly indicate and interpret the numerous research
approaches that were applied in this study. This study intends to examine the
participation and highlight the contributions of women in architectural practice in
Ghana. The study approach and strategy, in addition to the gathering and analysis of
data, are all clearly detailed in this chapter. The technique for determining and selecting
the sample size is also outlined and not omitting the study's ethical considerations and
limits
3.1 Research approach
The preferred strategy for this investigation is the mixed method approach. Reason being
that, the mixed approach incorporates both the quantitative and the qualitative data. The
qualitative method is necessary for human-oriented research making it suited for this
research inquiry. The inquiry seeks for the opinions and verbal description of women in
architectural practice, while the quantitative research is used to quantify actions, views,
attitudes, and other factors in order to make broad generalizations from a wider group of
people. The variables will be assessed and evaluated using descriptive statistics in terms
of the quantitative aspect.
3.2 Research Strategy
The three basic descriptive research methods are observational method, case study and
survey method. The survey technique was used as the study's primary research tool
22
where participants respond to questions via interviews or questionnaires. The responses
of the participants after they have answered the questions were then analyzed.
3.3 Data Source
The information used for this investigation came from both primary and secondary
sources. A literature review was used as a secondary source as well as the Architects
Registration Council (ARC) and the primary data from the intended target group. The
ARC provided a list of all registered architects as well as their contact details to the
researcher. Selection of participants was based on whether or not they met the following
criteria.
o Registered architects
o Registered firms
o Probationer architects
3.4 Respondents
Women in the architectural practice are the focus of the research. As a result, the
participants were women chosen from companies with a substantial number of female
employees in order to ensure a good representation. Also, males in management were
sampled.
3.5 Sample size determination
For the sample size determination, the Yamane formula was used.
23
Yamane formula is
Where:
 n = sample size
 e = precision level
 N = population size.
Therefore, at 95% confidence level and ±10% precision,
⸫ The sample size is 65 for the female respondents
 Sample size for the male respondents is,
⸫ The sample size is 84 for the male respondents
3.6 Sampling Technique
To make data collection more convenient, the non-probability sampling was be the most
suited sample technique.
Purposive Sampling: This sampling strategy was chosen since it will not only help
reach the desired sample, but it will also save money and time. A purposeful sample is
one in which the researcher makes use of their prior knowledge to choose a population
that is most relevant to the study's objectives.
24
Snowball Sampling: The snowball sampling method will be utilized because of the
unique character of the target group for this study and the potential difficulties in
gathering appropriate samples. This is highly appropriate and beneficial because the first
subjects' referrals will assist generate additional subjects who are relevant to the study.
As a result, a representative sample of the overall population may be obtained.
A list of all registered architects in Ghana was collected from the architect's registration
council to achieve results that were truly representative of the population of women
architects in Ghana. Following that, people were chosen from a list and pointed the
researcher to additional participants.
3.7 Data Collection
Due to the presence of covid-19, minority of the data was collected face to face. Mostly
the questionnaires were administered through calls, emails, WhatsApp all combined
with an introductory letter to recruit participants for the study. Questionnaires were
given out after affirmative responses and respondents were politely reminded weekly to
respond since Architects are busy people.
3.8 Data Collection Instruments
Structured questionnaires for female architects and male architects in management, were
the main data gathering devices employed. As well as semi structured interviews to
obtain the opinions of female architects. Data was gathered on the unique role played by
women in architectural firms, as well as their problems and contributions to architectural
practice from both the female and male Architect perspective so as not to be bias.
25
Table 3.1: Data requirement and collection method
Research Data Required Source of Data Mode of
Objective Collection
To review the  Women in  Journals  Literature
level of management.  Articles review
representation  Relationship  Online  Survey
of women in between the years publications Questionnaire
Architectural of experience and  Questionnaire  Interview
practice and the position of (female
education in women Architects)
Ghana  Number of
women interested
in furthering
education to the
next level.
To find critical  Opinion on gender  Journals  Literature
issues disparity at the  Articles review
pertaining to workplace.  Online  Survey
job seeking and  Factors which publications Questionnaire
promotion for influence  Questionnaire  Interview
women in employment and (female & male
Architectural promotion. Architects)
firms.
To assess the  The gender of the  Journals  Literature
essence of role role models of  Articles review
models in the these women.  Online  Survey
success rate of  The effectiveness publications Questionnaire
female of the role models  Questionnaire
Architects. (female
Architects)
To evaluate the  Nature of jobs  Journals  Literature
participation of undertaken by  Articles review
women in women in  Online  Survey
Architectural practice. publications Questionnaire
practice and  Daily  Male and female  Interview
ways to contributions of architects
enhance their female Architects.  Review literature
participation.  Implement best
practices from
developed
countries as
guidelines.
 Findings from
field survey.
Source: Author‟s Construct, August 2021.
26
3.9 Design of Research Instrument
Data was collected using both qualitative and quantitative research instruments. The
main data collection methods were questionnaires, interviews, and observation.
The questionnaire was broken down into seven sections. The participants' socio
demographic information was presented in the first section. The study's second part was
the professional background of respondents. The third section dealt with gender
disparity. The fourth and fifth being the influence of role models and the attainment of
higher education respectively. The sixth section focused on the opinions of male
management in architectural firms and to end the Survey questionnaires
recommendations were requested, thus the seventh section.
Questions were written in a straightforward and understandable manner. Questions were
designed with open-ended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, and rating-scale options.
3.10 Data Analysis
The use of charts, tables to present data, and other descriptive statistical analysis tools
was used as a quantitative method in the analysis process. Also, inferential analysis in
the form of regression test will be used. This resulted in a numerical score for the
quantitative information gathered. The most important findings from the field were
organized into broad topics and then debated and analyzed.
3.11 Ethical Considerations
To ensure the best results, the study was guided by a set of key principles/guidelines.
27
Participation in the study was completely voluntary, and participants could opt out at
any time with the participants‟' anonymity guaranteed.
Personal information was kept in the strictest of confidence and respondents did not
incur any costs neither were they paid for their participation.
3.12 Chapter Summary
This chapter provided insight into the study's research process. In summary, the mixed
method research approach was used. The sample size determination was achieved with
the aid of the sample size calculator. The next chapter gives a detailed description of the
findings and results.
28
CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.0 Introduction
The major objective of this chapter is to look at how women participate in and contribute
to architectural practice. The study looked into the following issues in relation to this:
the importance of role models in the success rate of female architects, the degree of
representation of women in architectural firms, crucial issues relating to job searching
and promotion for women in architectural firms, and the significance of role models in
the success rate of female architects. And finally, some contributions of women
practicing Architecture in Ghana.
This chapter summarizes the findings of the investigation. The information was obtained
mostly from female architects and male architects in management to learn about their
perceptions of women in architecture.
4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
A total of 150 questionnaires were distributed, with 63 out of the 65 needed being
returned (female respondents) and 52 out of the 84 needed returned (male respondents).
Out of the 63 female respondents, 9 were interviewed. Male and female architects
between the ages of 20 and 60+ responded to the survey. The majority of female
respondents were in the 30-39 age bracket, accounting for 25 women, or 39.7 % of the
overall sample size, with the 60+ age group accounting for just 1.6 percent. The majority
of male respondents, 40.5 %, were between the ages of 40 and 49.
29
Figure 4.1: Age Distribution of Respondents
Source: Author‟s Field Survey, August 2021.
In addition, 92.1 % had earned a master's degree or a postgraduate diploma in
architecture, with just 3.2% having earned a doctorate degree. This demonstrates that
few women pursued doctorate degrees after earning their master's degrees.
Table 4.1 Educational Background of respondents
Level of Education (N) Percentage
Bachelor‟s Degree 3 4.8
Master‟s Degree 58 92.1
Doctorate Degree 2 3.2
Total 63 100
30
4.2 Level of Representation of Female Architects
The level of female representation in the industry is examined in this section. It
investigates the status of women in the profession, their position at work, and their work
experience. Women's engagement in managerial positions may have an impact on
women's entrance into the profession.
4.2.1 Positions occupied by Females at the Workplace
According to the figure below, 74.6% of female respondents fell into the “Architect”
group, which has the maximum percentage of female respondents. “Other” came in
second with 9.5%, followed by “Principal architect” with 9.5%, and “project manager”
with 4.8%.
From the data gathered, there are very few women who are principal Architects or
owners of their own firm, which is consistent with a study conducted by Wilson and
Fowler (2004), which showed that men were far more likely than women to be sole
principals, owners, or senior partners of a practice. Woman architects have opted to form
fruitful alliances with their Architect spouses over the last 25 years (Caven, 2004.).
31
Figure 4.2: Positions Occupied by Female Architects in Firms
In one of the interviews conducted, when asked if there is any reason or risk for women
in Architecture in setting up a firm, the general response was that there was none. One
female who was a principal architect but has now retired also articulated and I cite her:
“I don’t think so, I just think that they haven’t tried. I know of one all-female
architects’ firms so it can be done but I don’t think the others have tried. There are
challenges but they made it and that should encourage us”
Another female architect also stated that and I quote:
“I don’t think there is anything stopping females from setting up their own firms, it
is just a matter of choice”.
32
4.2.2 Years of Work Experience of Women
From the figure below, it can be seen that those with 5-10 years of experience have the
largest proportion (39.7%), while those with more than 20 years have the lowest
percentage (4.8%).
This shows that, majority of the female Architects in Ghana are found between the 20-40
years group, meaning that more women are emerging and practicing Architecture as the
world continues to evolve. This data backs a study by Gupta in 2016 which discovered
that professional women and their thirst to develop themselves in a competitive field are
growing every day.
Figure 4.3: Years of Work Experience of Female Architects
33
4.2.3 Statistical Relationship Between the “Position of Women at the Workplace”
and the “Years of Work Experience”.
4.6.3.1 Inferential Results
A two-way contingency table analysis was conducted to determine whether the position
of women at the workplace was associated to their years of work experience. The two
variables used were the position of women at the workplace with four levels (principal
architect, architect, project manager and others) and the years of work experience with
five levels (1-5 years, 5-10 years, 10-15 years, 15-20 years and 60+). To assess the level
of interdependency between both variables, the chi square test of independence was used
and followed by the Fisher-Freeman-Halton test which is an extension of the Fisher‟s
exact test.
Below are the null and the alternative hypothesis;
 h˳₌ no statistical relationship and significance exist between the “position of
women” and the “years of work experience”.
 hֽ₌ statistical relationship and significance exist between the “position of
women” and the “years of work experience”.
A chi-square test was performed to evaluate independence between the two variables
displayed no statistically significant association between both variables, χ² (12, N=63)
=19.053, p=0.087.
Likewise, the Fishers-Freeman-Halton test which is an extension of the Fisher‟s Exact
test also indicated no association between the position of women and the years of work
experience of female architects, p= 0.096.
However, chi square test of independence demonstrates the violation of assumption
where more than 20% of the expected values should be lesser than 5 as shown below in
34
table 4.2 where 17 cells (85.0%) have expected count less than 5. There isn't enough
data to do the chi square test of independence because of this which can therefore
increase the risk of wrong decision making (Kroonenberg et al; 2018).
At the significance level of 0.05 for the Fisher-Freeman-Halton test, it can be concluded
that the p value was 0.096, p˃0.05. The data suggests that, the two variables are not
associated with each other so therefore, we fail to reject the null hypothesis affirms that
both variables are not associated.
Table 4.2: Comparing the association of the position of women and their years of work
experience
Chi-Square Value df Asymptotic Exact Sig. Exact Point

Tests Significance Sig.
(2-sided) Probability
(2sided) (1-sided)
Pearson Chi- 19.05 12 0.087 0.094
a
Square 3
Likelihood 16.60 12 0.165 0.184
Ratio 6
Fisher's 15.49 0.096
Exact Test 9
Linear-by- 0.225b 1 0.635 0.685 0.354 0.059
Linear
Association
N of Valid 63
Cases
a. 17 cells (85.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .14.
4.3 Level of Transparency in Employment and Promotion
The strategies by which firms hire personnel were investigated to see if they had an
impact on women's entry into the profession. They include how new job vacancies are
35
communicated to employees, the criteria used to choose candidates, the frequency with
which promotions are undertaken, and the reasons for wage disparities between men and
women, if any exist.
4.3.0 Promotion of Female Architects
Promotion is one way to boom the productivity of women in the firm. When asked if any
of the women had ever been promoted, 79.4 % responded no, while the remaining 20.6
% responded yes, as seen in the Chart below.
In the poll, managers claimed to promote employees, but the majority of women said
that they were never promoted indicating that majority of the people promoted are
males. This buttresses Blau and Kahn (2006) study that male promotion rates are greater
than female promotion rates.
Figure 4.4: Promotion Occurrence of Female Architects.
36
4.3.1 Frequency of Women Being Promoted in Architecture
With regards to the frequency at which women are promoted, the indicator was
measured on a four-point Likert scale. Score „1‟ showed how frequent they are promoted
while score „4‟ showed how less frequent promotion occurs for female architects.
According to the table below, 55.8% of the male in management stated that women are
“occasionally” promoted, 32.7% said “often”, with 11% for “rarely”. This therefore
shows that women are promoted occasionally that is, once in a while which still backs
the study by Blau and Kahn (2006) that female promotion rates are not so high.
Table 4.3: Frequency of women being promoted
Frequency of female N Percentage
promotion
Often 17 32.7
Occasionally 29 55.8
Rarely 6 11.5
Never 0 0
Total 52 100.0
4.3.2 Deprivation of Job Opportunity
In terms of job opportunities, 63.5 % of the sample size had not been deprived, whereas
39% had. This demonstrates that when it comes to acquiring an employment or a
project, female architects are often unaffected by their gender.
In an unrelated conversation, a female architect stated that she was deprived of a job
because she was female and could not afford to have her injured-on site and even though
37
the client stated she did a great job on the project which led him to her which should not
be so. This instance backs the study Willis (2009) conducted which argued that if a
woman eventually achieved her target and was registered as an Architect, the social and
political environment also put her at a disadvantage in comparison to her male
counterparts.
Figure 4.5: Deprivation of Job Opportunity for Female Architects
4.3.3 Workplace Incentives and Workplace Privileges
Finally social factors such as privileges, incentives, and job deprivation were analyzed
as shown in figure 4.6 and 4.7. For the workplace incentives, 4.8% of respondents had
enjoyed certain incentive due to their gender. However, 95.2 % which formed the
majority had enjoyed no such benefits. In terms of privileges, which include the ability
to close early for various reasons, access to corporate cars, and so on, majority of the
total sample size (66.7%) did not receive these privileges regardless of their gender. This
indicated that, the gender inequality gap still exists although it had really narrowed. This
further indicates that with the same way they are given these privileges and incentives,
38
that is the same way they can be deprived of an opportunity as a result of gender.
Discrimination is still present concerning issues pertaining to working females and some
factors contributing primarily are stereotyping, biasness and family (Sunna et al; 2018)
Figure 4.6: Enjoyment of Workplace Incentives of Female Architects
Figure 4.7: Enjoyment of Workplace Privileges of Female Architects
Source: Field Survey (August, 2021).
39
4.3.4 Transparency of Job Openings
According to the figure below, the most predominant response in regard to the
transparency of job openings in firms is yes, accounting for 88.5 %, with 11.5% being
male managers who replied no. This implies that most firms make job openings public
and that gender inequality is minimal in Architecture. The data found is the opposite of
the study by RIBA (2018) which discovered that even among male architects there is a
common belief that companies do not give women the same opportunity for professional
growth as they do to males (RIBA, 2018).
Figure 4.8: Transparency of job openings (male respondents)
4.3.5 Difference in Income Level
The figure below illustrates whether gender influences the salary of employees of the
same rank. According to the data, 84.1 % or the majority of the female respondents,
were unaware of such occurrences. The remaining 15.9%, on the other hand, have
experienced income disparities between men and women. The data reveals that, there is
40
a low level of income difference between male and female Architects. This however
debunked the study of TUM Department of Architecture (2019) which indicated that
full-time female Architects earn 30% less than male counterpart.
Figure 6: Difference in Income level
Figure 4.9: Difference in Income level in Firms
4.3.6 Workplace Satisfaction
For the purpose of assessing the workplace satisfaction of female the level of satisfaction
was measured on a five-point Likert scale (Table 5). Score „5‟ showed the least level of
satisfaction while score „1‟ showed the highest level of satisfaction.
Out of the 63 people who responded, 49.2% said they were happy with their job. The
bulk of the sample was made up of this. 30.2% of respondents said their experience was
indifferent, while 7.9% said they were dissatisfied. This indicates that female architects
in Ghana had a positive job experience on average.
Women are quite satisfied on their work and achievement in the field with full of their
attitude towards their profession (Gupta, 2016).
41
Figure 4.10: Workplace Satisfaction of Female Architects
4.3.7 Criteria for Selecting Job Applicants
From the figure below, it can be deduced that the most predominant criteria for the
selection of job applicants is the “abilities” representing 55.8% followed by “educational
background” 34.6% with “gender” coming in last with 1.9%. It can therefore be
established that, gender doesn‟t play a majority role when it comes to selection of
applicants.
42
Figure 4.11: Criteria for Selecting Job Applicants
4.4 Essence of Role Models
The low status of female mentors in Architecture has got nothing to do with their
incompetency but all to do their poor visibility and representation in the field and the
media can be used as a platform to enhance the visibility window for women in
Architecture (Omoyeni et al; 2019).
4.4.0 Gender of Role Model
According to Gupta (2014), the lack of appropriate study on female architects in
architecture education has resulted in a misconception of women's role in development,
as well as difficulties relating to employment and absorption of female graduates.
43
Only 27% out of the total sample of 63 revealed that they did not have a role model.
Most of the female respondents who have role models have the gender of the role model
being male (64%) and just 36% of them being females. Majority of the architects had
their role models being male and this is so because most of the firms in Ghana are run by
males. This further indicates that there is a shortage of female architects in the
profession, as well as a lack of awareness of female architects, particularly in schools.
This adds weight to the argument by Niculae (2014), the standard in architectural
education leans more especially to the male side, and the growing interest in
architectural practice among women has declined.
In an article by Sanghani (2014) Hannah Corlett expressed the following sentiment:
“Apart from Zaha all famous architects are men. I think a greater awareness of the
work of women architects needs to be taught in schools. When most people think of
architecture, they think of an old man behind a desk and that needs to change,"
Figure 4.12: Gender of Role Model
44
4.4.1 Effectiveness of Role Model
Everyone needs someone to look up to for motivation and Architects are not exceptions.
For the purposes of examining the effectiveness of role models in the success rate of
female Architects, a five-point Likert scale was used. Score „5‟ showed the most
effective and score „1‟ showed the least effective.
With respect to the effectiveness of role models in the success rate of female Architects,
42.9% of the respondents believed role models were "somewhat effective”, 30.6% for
“very effective", 14.3% " Neither effective nor ineffective", 8.2% “very ineffective” and
only 4.1% "somewhat ineffective" and these can be shown with the figure below. This
indicated that in all having someone to look up to and guide through the profession
especially in the early years of Architecture improves the success rate in female
architects. This further backs a study by Lawrence (2014) which argues that there has
been little provable inquisition on the influence of mentors on the females in architecture
since role models encourage the success of women by alleviating the issues of stereotype
threat.
45
Figure 4.13: Effectiveness of Role Models
4.4.2 Statistical Relationship Between the “Gender of Role Model” and the “Level
of Effectiveness”.
A two-way contingency table analysis was conducted to examine whether the gender of
role models was associated to their level of effectiveness. The two variables used were
the gender of role models with two levels (male and female) and the level of
effectiveness of role models with five levels (very effective, somewhat effective, neither
effective or ineffective, somewhat ineffective and very ineffective). To determine the
relationship between both variables, the chi square test of independence was used and
follow by the Fisher-Freeman-Halton test which is an extension of the Fisher‟s exact
test.
46
 h˳₌ no statistical relationship and significance exist between the “gender of role
model” and the level of “effectiveness of role model”.
 hֽ₌ statistical relationship and significance exist between the “gender of role
model” and the level of “effectiveness of role model”.
a chi-square test was performed to determine independence between the two variables
showed no statistically significant association between both variables, χ² (4, N=63)
=3.325, p=0.505.
test also revealed no association between the two variables that is “gender of role
model” and the level of “effectiveness of role model”, p= 0.580 was statistically
significant. However, chi square test of independence demonstrates the violation of
assumption where more than 20% of the expected values should be lesser than 5 as
shown below in table 4.5 where 6 cells (60.0%) have expected count less than 5. This
means that, there is not an adequate sample size to run the chi square test of
independence which can therefore increase the risk of wrong decision making
(Kroonenberg et al; 2018).
At the significance level of 0.05 for the Fisher-Freeman-Halton test, the p value was
0.580, p˃0.05. The data suggests that, the two variables are not associated with each
other so therefore, we fail to reject the null hypothesis affirms that both variables are not
associated.
47
Table 4.4: Comparing how the “gender of role model” is associated to the “effectiveness
of role model”.
Chi-Square Value df Asymptotic Exact Sig. Exact Point

Tests Significance Sig.
(2-sided) Probability
(2sided) (1-sided)
Pearson Chi- 3.325a 4 0.505 .559
Square
Likelihood 3.547 4 0.471 0.574
Ratio
Fisher's Exact 3.179 0.580
Test
Linear-by- 1.232b 1 0.267 0.296 0.167 0.056
Linear
Association
N of Valid 47
Cases
a. 6 cells (60.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 0.36.
4. 5 Attainment of Higher Education
A multitude of practices impact women‟s advancement in profession rank and create
barrier to field productivity. Worldwide studies show that women are less likely to head
architecture team, apply for research grants and often have lower publication rates than
their male counterparts in the field of architecture.
Majority of the female Architects stop their education at the master‟s level after
acquiring their license while a few go ahead to further their education. The data
collected below is to be used to understand why that is so.
48
4.5.1 Furthering of Education for Female Architects.
From the Figure below, less than half of the respondents (33.87 %) had plans of
furthering their education with 66.13% comfortable with their current level in the
profession. This shows that, women in architecture are still interested in furthering their
education to the next level and eventually lead to leadership roles in the industry even
though some have challenges that is making it a reality. Although there has been a
global expansion of tertiary education systems, the rates of participation amid women in
S&T higher education and in the workforce of academia have substantially fallen behind
as compared to their male counterparts (David, 2011).
Lewis (1998) studies also indicated that in 1998, 31 percent of architecture
undergraduates were female, but less than half advanced to the post-graduate level.
Figure 4.14: Interest in the Attainment of Higher Education
49
4.5.2 Challenges Pertaining to The Attainment of Higher Education
Women in the field of Architecture face several difficulties, including a lack of
advancement and inflexible working hours. One of the challenges they also face are the
factors which hinder them from furthering their education.
As already stated above, out of the 33.87% who would like to further their education, a
few had some challenges. Figure 4.14 displays some factors making this a challenge. It
is noticed that, majority of the respondents chose “family” (33.3%), followed by “heavy
work load”, 27.8% and finally, “financial” and “others” both having 16.7% and 22.2%
respectively.
This shows that, aside the common factor which is family discovered as a result of a
study by Whitman (2005) which revealed that for mothers the difficulty to progress in
Architectural profession are entirely transparent and revolves around problems that
concentrate on balancing their time management and family devotedness, heavy work
load is also a crucial factor which hinders the furthering of education of women in
Architecture. Women are limited in the advancement of their career by geographical
constraints, family obligations, guilt and prejudice (Adusah-Karikari, 2008). David
(2011) also backed this by saying that. Despite the global expansion of tertiary education
systems, participation rates among women in S&T higher education and in the academic
workforce have substantially lagged behind those of their male counterparts.
50
Figure 4.15: Challenges Hindering the Attainment of Higher Education of Female
Architects
4.5.3 Area of Specialization
There are several areas in which women can specialize in. Specialization in a field may
lead to an increase in the demand which will in hand increase the level of representation
of female architects. Many of the women were interested in furthering their education
had an area such as interior design, landscape design and urban design they wanted to
specialize in with only a few of the respondents undecisive.
One female Architect stated that and I quote:
“Although I would love to further my education preferably urban design, the timing is
just wrong and I keep putting it off due to domestic responsibilities and challenging
work load”.
51
4.6 Roles and Contributions of Women in Architecture
This section looks at the contribution women make to architecture, including the number
of hours they work in the construction sector and the how managing directors evaluate
the work of women, the duties assigned to them, the balancing of family and
Architecture as well as their traveling frequencies. Women's extra responsibilities were
also examined.
4.6.1 Assigned Duties
This section delves into the roles of women in the field of architecture. Architects are
responsible for a variety of responsibilities, including everything from the structure's
design through its completion. The precise function that Architects play is determined by
these duties. Architects play a variety of roles, which are listed in Figure 4.15 below.
It shows that the combination of each activity is the most prevalent function for women
in architecture, accounting for 47.6%, followed by sketch design (30.2%), supervising
work (12.7%), and production drawings (9.5%). This demonstrates that female architects
are adaptable and can assist in the building of a facility from start to finish, from
inception construction. The efficient involvement of women's diversity in Portuguese
jurisdiction is strategically basilar in stages of a project from identification, intervention
and assessment (Antunes, 2018).
52
Figure 4.16: Assigned Works of Female Architects
4.6.2 Working Hours
The number of hours spent at work may impact women's decision to stay or quit the
construction business. Dainty and Lingard (2006) evaluated the amount of hours spent
by women in the business to determine how it may encourage women to continue in the
industry since there is a stated alternative between a successful job and a good home life.
Despite women having to domestic responsibilities, the data indicated that female
Architects spend seven hours to ten hours of work in the profession. Appointments with
clients and project deadlines require lengthy working hours in a day disadvantaging
woman with family responsibilities (Fowler and Wilson, 2004).
53
One other architect stated that the working hours were sometimes inflexible and become
tighter as the project approaches the end as a result of tight contract deadlines. To quote
her:
“I believe there should be flexible working policies and hours that favor women and I
also think that women can be more productive from home if the need of her family isn’t
constantly on her mind”
4.6.3 Family-Architectural Practice Conflict
From the study, 73% disagreed on the notion that family interrupts work while the other
27% agreed that is does. This suggests that women in Architecture have no difficulty
when it comes to the issue of distinguishing family from that of work so that they don‟t
blend.
Figure 4.17: Family-Architectural Practice Conflict
With the interview conducted, women were asked how work-family conflict in
Architecture can be a thing of the past. A female architect stated that these days,
54
balancing of work and family is manageable but that did not mean that family could not
cause an interruption once in a while. She went ahead to suggest that a facility such as a
daycare center needs to be introduced into firms so that mothers would not have to travel
over a long distance and forth since it can also affect productivity.
4.6.4 The Balancing of Family and Architecture for Women in Architectural
Practice
Architecture is believed to affect personal lives of Architects, preferably the females.
This section evaluates the level of ease at which women balance the practice of
Architecture and raising a family all at once. A four-point Likert scale was used
measuring the ability to balance family and work. Score „4‟ showed the strongest ability
while score „1‟ showed the lowest ability.
From the figure below, the highest percentage of the respondents (73%) fell within the
“manageable” bracket, meaning they find it easy in terms of balancing fand and
Architecture with “difficult” coming in second with 23.8. This goes to back Caven
(2014) who believes women have had to conform their career to take on family
commitments into account.
55
Figure 4.18: Balancing of family and Architectural practice
From the interview conducted, one lady was asked if one of the reasons why women
could not afford to set up more female owned firms was the work-family conflict and
her response was that and I quote:
“That may be a big challenge but it also is a manageable challenge. In the initial stage
it is difficult but now there are so many other things that can kind of support especially
nanny or child care support”.
4.6.5 A Comparative Test of The Ability To “Balance Work and Family” and the
Level at Which “Family Interrupts Work”
A two-way contingency table analysis was conducted to evaluate whether the ability to
balance work and family was associated to the frequency at which family interrupted
56
work. The two variables were the frequency at which family interrupted work with two
levels (no and yes) and female performance in Architecture with four levels (very easy,
manageable, difficult and very difficult). To evaluate the level of interdependency
between both variables, the chi square test of independence was used and follow by the
Fisher-Freeman-Halton test.
 h˳₌ The ability to balance family and work is not associated to the frequency at
which family interrupts work.
 hֽ₌ The ability to balance family and work is associated to the frequency at
which family interrupts work.
A chi square test of independence conducted between the two variables showed a
statistically significant association between both variables, χ² (3, N=63) =19.601,
p=0.000.
test also showed a statistically significant association between the frequency at which
women are promoted and their performance in Architecture, p= 0.00.
However, chi square test of independence demonstrates the violation of assumption
where more than 20% of the expected values should be lesser than 5 as shown below in
table 4.5 where 5 cells (62.5%) have expected count less than 5. This is to say that, the
sample size is not adequate to run the chi square test of independence which can
therefore increase the risk of wrong decision making (Kroonenberg et al; 2018).
0.000, p˂0.05. The data suggests that, the two variables are associated with each other so
57
therefore, the alternative hypothesis has been failed to be rejected since it asserts that
both variables are associated.
Table 4.5: Comparing how the ability to “balance family and work” is associated to the
level at which “family interrupts work”.
Chi-Square Value df Asymptotic Exact Sig. Exact Sig. Point

Significance(2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided) Probability
Tests
a
Pearson Chi- 19.601 3 0.000 0.000
Square
Likelihood 18.752 3 0.000 0.000
Ratio
Fisher's 17.949 0.000
Exact Test
b
Linear-by- 18.499 1 .000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Linear
Association
N of Valid 63
Cases
4.6.6 Performance of Women
In examining the performance of women in Architectural firms in Ghana, the views of
managing directors were solicited in order to determine how their numerical
representation in the sector may be advantageous or disadvantageous to the industry.
Managers were asked to assess the performance of women in their organizations
according to the quality of their work as well as their attitude towards work. Also, it was
58
measured on a five-point Likert scale (Table 14). Score „1‟ showed the strongest
agreement while score „5‟ showed the least agreement.
Figure 4.19 below reveals that the general performance of women in terms of their
attitude towards work at the workplace in Architecture according to majority of
managers of firms is good which is 55.8% followed by very good (30.8%) and then
neutral (13.5%). This goes to show that women practicing Architecture generally
perform well at the workplace to the satisfaction of their managing directors. According
to Gupta (2016), there is no doubt that women Architects have taken a giant leap with
their professional ambitions.
Figure 4.19: Performance of Women in Firms
59
4.6.7 A Comparative Test to Determine the Association Between “Frequency of
Female Promotion” and Their “Performance in Architecture”.
A two-way contingency table analysis was conducted to assess whether the frequency of
female promotion was associated to women performance in Architecture. The two
variables were the frequency female promotion with levels (often, occasionally and
rarely) and female performance in Architecture with three levels (neutral, good and very
good). To determine the relationship between both variables, the chi square test of
independence was used and follow by the Fisher-Freeman-Halton test.
 h˳₌ The frequency of female promotion is independent of the performance of
women in Architecture.
 hֽ₌ The frequency of female promotion is not independent of the performance
of women in Architecture.
A chi square test of independence conducted between the two variables showed a
statistically significant association between both variables, χ² (4, N=52) = 16.829,
p=0.002.
test also showed a statistically significant association between the frequency at which
women are promoted and their performance in Architecture, p= 0.02.
However, chi square test of independence shows the violation of assumption where more
than 20% of the expected values should be lesser than 5 as shown below in table 4.6
where 5 cells (55.6%) have expected count less than 5. This implies that there is
60
insufficient sample size to perform the chi square test of independence which can
therefore increase the risk of wrong decision making (Kroonenberg et al; 2018).
0.002, p˂0.05. The data suggests that, the two variables are associated with each other
therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected since it asserts that both variables are not
associated.
Table 4.6: A comparative test to determine the association between “frequency of female
promotion” and their “performance”.
Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymptotic Exact Sig. Exact Sig. Point

Significance (2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided) Probability
Pearson Chi- 16.82 4 0.002 0.003
Square 9a
Likelihood 19.63 4 0.001 0.001
Ratio 9
Fisher's Exact 15.30 0.002
Test 5
Linear-by- 0.094b 1 0.759 0.867 0.446 0.128
Linear
Association
N of Valid 52
Cases
4.6.8 Female Architects’ Opinions on How Women in Architectural Practice in
Ghana are Contributing.
Female architects were interviewed to seek their opinion on the how women are
contributing to the field of Architecture. Below are some statements which were made.
61
“Women have different ways we can contribute and an instance is women see more
details and are particular about certain things and if we are talking about a house,
women use the house more and would be able to assess the needs of the client”.
“Women have good relations with clients because we are warmer and that is a
contribution because what is the use of an angry or frustrated client to a firm?”.
“And even with regard to the office, there are somethings that women can help out
with like the hygiene, not only the washroom but even the cleaning of the office to make
it a presentable place as well as help with the pantry or something”.
Finally, a study by Adams and Tancred (2000) stated that women have made significant
and unacknowledged contributions to the field's key findings, and can be credited with
Architecture.
4.7 Chapter Summary
The findings of the survey were reported and evaluated using descriptive statistics in this
chapter. The results were presented in frequency and mean tables, with some pie charts
thrown in for good measure. The conclusions drawn from the analyzed data are
presented in the next chapter.
62
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
This chapter summarizes major findings deduced from the study. The findings were
based on the study's goals. It further draws conclusions and recommendations based on
the literature review and the findings derived from the field study. These
recommendations are worth implementing in order to elevate women in Architectural
practice by enhancing their visibility.
5.2 Summary of Findings
The purpose of this research was to explore the role of women as well as their
contributions in Architectural practice in Ghana. The findings are therefore summarized
in fulfillment of the objectives.
5.2.1 Level of Representation of Women in Architectural practice and education
The objective has been achieved by reviewing literature related to the subject at hand, as
well as well conducting a survey to confirm whatever is found in said literature Women
are underrepresented in both number and level in the profession. Furthermore, the status
of women in the profession, their position at work and their work experience were
studied to review their level in the profession. From the literature and field study it was
discovered that very few women are found to be sole owners or principal architects and
those who did were mostly in partnership with another male Architect or spouse. This
goes to say that, women are underrepresented in managerial positions because they are
63
underrepresented in numbers and also if there is an increase in the number of females
practicing Architecture in Ghana, it is going to reflect in the levels of women in firms
therefore increasing the level of representation of female architects in Ghana. Moreover,
with regards to the years of experience it was established that, the position of women did
not depend on their years of work experience. Female architects are not interested in
furthering their education to the next level mainly due to family and heavy work load.
To conclude, if women should specialize in specific areas in Architecture, it will
increase their visibility in the profession.
5.2.2 Level of Transparency in Employment and Promotion
The study established that women are not often promoted. The criteria for job applicant
also had nothing to do with their gender and more to do with their abilities. Also, in
terms of social factors such as privileges, incentives, and job deprivation, gender does
not factor the treatment leading to the assumption that, gender discrimination in
Architecture is on the low. There was no high difference in income found and job
openings are transparent and made known to the public.
5.2.3 Essence of Role Models
From the study, the predominant gender of the role models was male and this can be
linked to the fact that males owned majority of the firms in Ghana and many female
architects work under them. Also, the existence of role models in the life of a female
Architect was found to be somewhat effective in their success rate in the field. It was
further proven that; the gender of the role model does not predict the level of
effectiveness of a role model.
64
5.2.4 Contributions of Women
The results showed that, female architects contributed significantly in the field of
Architecture and are able to perform all the various tasks from design to supervision.
Although they are greatly underrepresented in the in number, women still make their
present known in Architecture with their eyes for keen details, their good performances
in firms, their ability to balance family with Architectural practice without each getting
in the way of the other and their ability to adapt to the inflexible working hours in
Architectural practice.
5.3 Recommendations
The recommendation of the study are as follows;
5.3.1 Assess the essence of role models in the success rate of female architects.
Mentorship program for students should be developed so as to aid and guide them from
the beginning of their early years of Architecture.
5.3.2 Find critical issues pertaining to job seeking and promotion for women in
Architectural firms.
Firms should guide their recruitment strategies towards the recruitment of equal numbers
of males and females at entry level in order to encourage gender diversity and
inclusiveness.
65
5.3.3 To review the level of representation of women practicing Architectural
practice and education in Ghana.
1. 1. Women should have clear objectives and desires in life from the outset
so that they do not lose focus in the middle of their careers.
2. The women in the Ghana Institute of Architects should organize
workshops in the various senior high schools in Ghana to broaden the
knowledge of female students on Architecture and help increase the
numbers.
5.3.4 To evaluate the participation of women in Architectural practice and ways to
enhance their participation
1. Annual workshops should be organized so as to encourage and empower
women to take on large scale jobs.
2. The government should give female architects quota in the development
projects to boost their interest and retain them in the field.
3. In terms of architectural education, more females should be used in
accordance to the male masters so as to motivate female students.
4. Daycare centers should be factored in the design of an Architectural
workplace to aid mothers work productively (ArchXenus).
5.4 Conclusion
Finally, the study summary and suggestions were extensively addressed in accordance
with the research goals. The study established that women in Architecture is Ghana are
generally underrepresented in the profession and different measures need to be taken so
66
as to attract women into Architecture. Also, women contribute to Architecture in several
ways and are performing exceptionally well in the field as compared to their male
components and therefore need to be more recognized.
67
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Stead, N, ed. (2016). Women, practice, architecture: „Resigned accommodation‟ and
„unsupatory practice‟. Routledge, 2016.
Stratigakos, D. (2016). Where are the women Architects? Princeton University Press.
Walker, L. (2000). Women and architecture. A View from the Interior: Feminism,
Women and Design, 7(1), pp.90-105.
Whitman, P. (2005). The career progression of women in the architectural profession.
Willis, J. (1998). Invisible contributions: the problem of history and women architects.
Architectural Theory Review 3, no. 2 (1998).
Yoshimori-Yamamoto, D.F. (2012). Women in Architecture: Learning from the past to
change the future (Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawai „i).
Young, E. (2003)..„Running to stand still‟ RIBA Journal, July.
70
APPENDIX
INFORMED CONSENT FORM
I, Angela Afua Assan of the College of Arts and Built Environment; KNUST, wish to
embark on a study entitled “Evaluating the roles and Contributions of Women in
Architectural Practice in Ghana”. The purpose of this study is to ascertain the
participation and contributions of female Architects. A few basic inquiries regarding
your personal information will be requested of you. The study's benefits include
evaluating the roles women play Architecture, how they contribute towards Architecture
and suggest measures to enhance their visibility in the profession. If you volunteer, it
would be greatly appreciated, and your involvement will be kept absolutely secret. You
have the option to drop out of the research at any time. Your personal information will
be treated with the utmost secrecy. It is possible that you will not immediately profit
from your involvement. You will not incur any fees and will not be compensated for
your participation in this study. You will, however, be entitled to know the research's
conclusion, which will be thoroughly communicated to you. All data will be entered into
an SPSS Data file that is password-protected. The study questionnaires will be kept in
strict confidence.
My contact number is +233 (0)501653491. For any further clarification, you may
reach out. Thank you very much for your cooperation and anticipated compliance
to the requirements of the study.
Part A: Demographic Characteristics of respondents
Male respondents should kindly move to the next chapter after section 1
1. Gender……….
71
A. Male B. Female
2. Age.
A. 20-29 B. 30-39 C. 40-49 D. 50-59 E. 60+
3. Educational background
A. HND/Diploma B. Bachelor's degree C. Master's Degree D. Doctorate
4.What is your level in the profession? *
A. Senior registered Architect B. Junior registered Architect C. Probationer Architect
D. Other.................
5.What position do you occupy in the workplace?
A. Principal architect B. Architect C. Project Manager D. Other
6. Years of work experience
A. Less than 5 years B. 5-10 years C. 10-15 years D. 15-20 years E. Above 20 years
Part B: Professional Background
7.What is your employment status?
A. Full time B. Part time
8. How many hours do you spent at the work place?? From………… To……………. *
9. Considering your current work intensity and the value you add to the firm; how do
you feel about your current level of compensation?
A. Very satisfied B. Satisfied C. Neutral D. Dissatisfied E. Very dissatisfied
10.Have you ever been promoted?
A. Yes B. No
11. If yes, from which level to which level? From…………………….
To……………………
72
12.What kind of work are you usually assigned to in the workplace? *
A. Sketch Design B. Productive drawing work C. Supervisory work D. Other
13.How often do you travel due to work?
A. Daily B. Weekly C. Monthly D. Seasonal E.Yearly F. Never
14. Does family interrupt work?
A. Yes B. No
15. If yes, which of the following mainly does?
A. Maternity period B. Role as a wife C. Role as a mother D. All of the above E.
Other
16.How would you rate the balancing of family and architecture?
A. Very difficult B. Difficult C. Manageable D. Very easy
Part C: Gender disparity
17. Are you familiar with the term gender discrimination?
A. Yes B. No
18. Are you aware of any difference in income levels of your colleagues of the same
level in the office?
A. Yes B. No
19. Have you ever been denied certain workplace incentives (leaves, allowances,
company vehicle) due to your gender?
A. Yes B. No
20.Have you been given certain privileges due to your gender?
A. Yes B. No
21. Have you ever felt like you were deprived of a particular job opportunity due to your
73
gender?
A. Yes B. No
Part D: Influence of role models
22. Do you have a role model?
A. Yes B. No
23. If yes, kindly specify gender of role model
A. Male B. Female
24.How effective is the presence of role model in your success as an architect?
A. Very ineffective B. Somewhat ineffective C. Neither effective nor ineffective D.
Somewhat effective E. Very effective
Part E: Attainment of Higher education
25.Will you like to further your education to the next level?
A. Yes B. No
26.Which level?
A. HND/Diploma B. Bachelor‟s Degree C. Master‟s Degree D. Doctorate Degree
27.What is a challenge you are facing in making it a reality?
A. Family B. Financial C. Challenging work experience D. Other
28. Area of specialization (If master‟s or doctorate degree).....................................
Part F: Management
(For male Respondents only)
74
29. Are job openings posted such that all employees are fully aware of new
opportunities?
A. Yes B. No
30.What criteria are usually considered in selecting an applicant for the job?
A. Educational background B. Abilities C. Gender D. Position in the workplace E.
Other
31. How many of the women belong to the following? a. Senior staff…………………
b. Junior staff…………………
32. Are men in your company paid equally as their female counterpart?
A. Yes B. No
33. If no, why?.....................................
34.How often do you conduct promotions in your firm?
A. Monthly B. Seasonal C. Annually D. Biennially E. Other
35. How often are women promoted?
A. Often B. Occasionally C. Rarely D. Never
36.How will you rate the performance of women in your firm?
A. Very good B. Good C. Neutral D. Poorly E. Very poorly
37.What difficulty do you have in working with the women in your company?
A. Family B. Maternity C. Attitude D. All the above E. Other
38. Recommendations and Measures to Enhance the Roles and Contribution of Women
in Architectural Practice in Ghana
..............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
75

An Evaluation of The Participation and Contribution of Female Architects in Ghana.

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KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND BUILT ENVIRONENT

FACULTY OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT

EVALUATING THE PARTICIPATION AND CONTRIBUTION OF WOMEN IN

ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE IN GHANA

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE,

part or whole, for another degree elsewhere.

I hereby declare that I have personally done this study.

Assan Angela Afua (9130317) ………………. ………………..

(Student) (Signature) (Date)

Mrs. Christina Asmah ………………. ………………..

(Supervisor) (Signature) (Date)

Prof. Christian Koranteng ………………. ………………..

(Head of Department) (Signature) (Date)

tackled in relation to the Sustainable development goal 5 which focuses on achieving

promotion for women in Architectural firms; evaluate the level of women's

representation in architectural practice and education in Ghana; assess women's

research used structured questionnaires, both closed and open-ended as well as

descriptive statistical tools as well as inferential statistical tools for comparative

underrepresented in terms of managerial positions in Architectural firms; the issue of

contributions in Architecture but are greatly underrepresented in terms of numbers

going to reflect in the level of representation in firms. The practical implications of

Ghana as well us aid in their visibility.

Keywords- participation, contribution, Architectural practice.

during the period of this study and making it a success.

prayers and encouragement throughout my education.

4.6.6 Performance of Women ………………………………………….......................-58-

Figure 4.1: Age Distribution of Respondents ……………………………..................-30-

Table 3.1: Data requirement and collection method……………………………..........-26-

have contributed immensely to various sectors globally including architecture as a

this research is to assess the involvement and contribution of women in Architectural

participation of women in architecture around the world has been remarkably

whereas men make up 94% in management.

introducing and improving creative and transformative approaches to practice and

success in their careers (Adusah-Karikari, 2008).

that of the women Architect is not so cut out (Stead, 2016).

by chance employment. The range of women's successful participation in Portuguese

jurisdiction is essential in the early stages of a project from identification, involvement

and assessment (Antunes, 2018).

Although there is an increase awareness of gender disparity, it is yet to be seen if culture

1.2 Research Problem

According to Civici and Yemiscioglu (2021), gender-based hurdles conceived in the

configuration as glass ceilings impedes the career development process of female

the field of architecture, even among men. (RIBA, 2018).

Although women in Architectural practice have seen tremendous transformation in the

involvement of females in Architecture (Gupta, 2014)

1.3 Problem Statement

environment (Walker, 2000).

and how they have contributed towards Architectural practice in Ghana.

1.5 Research Questions

1. How do female role models influence the success of practicing female

3. What is the level of representation of women in Architectural practice and

Architectural education in Ghana?

1.6 Research Objectives

This research seeks specifically to

1. Examine the influence of role models in female architects' success rates.

3. Evaluate the level of women's representation in architectural practice and

1.7 Scope of Study

down geographically to specific regions in Ghana. Questionnaires will be sent out to

that we understand issues from both points of view.

1.8 Research Methodology

structured questionnaires which were administered to various firms in the country.

Architecture as well as males in managerial positions.