3D Printing Technology in Architecture 27092019

OCTOBER 2019
ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report “FUTURISTIC TECHNOLOGY IN

ARCHITECTURE – 3D PRINTED HOUSES” is the bonafide work of
“BALAJI M” who carried out the project work under my supervision.
Prof. Ar. R.SEETHA, M.Arch. Ar. L. MALARKODI, M.Arch.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT GUIDE
Department of Architecture Department of Architecture
Adhiyamaan College of Engg. Adhiyamaan College of Engg.
Dr. M.G.R. Nagar Dr. M.G.R. Nagar
Hosur – 635 109. Hosur – 635 109.
INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

DECLARATION
BALAJI M (Reg no. AC15UAR008) a bonafide student of the Department of

Architecture, Adhiyamaan college of Engineering (autonomous), Hosur, hereby
declares that this dissertation report entitled “FUTURISTIC TECHNOLOGY
IN ARCHITECTURE – 3D PRINTED HOUSES” for the award of the
degree, Bachelor of Architecture, is my original work and has not formed the
basis or submitted to any other universities or institution for the award of a
degree or diploma.
DATE :
PLACE : HOSUR (BALAJI M)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I first thank lord almighty, whose graceful blessings enabled me to complete

this dissertation project for the fulfilment of my B.Arch. degree course.
I convey my heartfelt thanks to the college, especially to our Principal

Dr. G. RANGANATH, M.E, Ph.D., M.I.S.T.E., M.I.E., C.Eng. (I), for
providing the wonderful environment and their support.
I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to our beloved H.O.D, Prof.

Ar. R. SEETHA, M .Arch. for rendering her valuable guidance, support,
encouragement and advice to make my efforts and the project successful.
I specially thank my Guide, Ar. L. MALARKODI, M .Arch. for her timely

guidance and encouragement. I thank all other faculty of the architecture
department for their help and guidance.
I am grateful to my parents and my family members who offered great

support and encouragement during the Dissertation.
(BALAJI M)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................... 0
1.1. PROBLEMATIC SCENARIO ............................................................................. 1

1.2. ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... 2
1.3. AIM .............................................................................................................. 2
1.4. OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................. 3
1.5. SCOPE........................................................................................................... 4
1.6. LIMITATIONS ................................................................................................ 4
2. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF THE TECHNOLOGY....................... 5
2.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 6

2.1.1. Process of 3D Printing Technology ..................................................... 6
2.2. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION ........................................................................... 7
2.3. CLASSIFICATION ........................................................................................... 9
2.3.1. Selective fusion ................................................................................... 10
2.3.1.1. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) ..................................... 11
2.3.1.2. Stereolithography (SL) ................................................................. 12
2.3.2. Selective deposition ............................................................................ 12
2.3.2.1. Contour Crafting ........................................................................... 13
2.3.2.2. Poly Jet Printing ........................................................................... 14
2.3.2.3. Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS) ....................................... 15
2.3.2.4. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) ............................................. 16
2.3.2.5 Anti-Gravity Object Modeling ...................................................... 16
2.4. CONTOUR CRAFTING .................................................................................. 17
2.4.1. Types of Machines in Contour Crafting ............................................. 19
2.4.2. Metal Extrusion Technique ................................................................. 20
2.5. CURRENT STATE OF 3-DIMENSIONAL PRINTERS ......................................... 21
3. CASE STUDIES ............................................................................................ 24
3.1 TWO-STOREY HOUSE IN CHINA, BY BEIJING-BASED HUA SHANG TENGDA. . 25

3.2 FIVE-STOREY APARTMENT BUILDING IN SUZHOU, CHINA, BY WINSUN........ 27
3.3 3D PRINTED HOUSES 640FT2 IN AUSTIN, TEXAS, USA BY ICON................. 29
4. PROCESS INVOLVED IN 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY ................. 32
4.1 DESIGNING PROCESS ................................................................................... 33

4.1.1. File Formats ....................................................................................... 35
4.2 EXECUTION PROCESS .................................................................................. 38
4.3 APPLICATION OF 3D PRINTING IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION .................... 42
4.4 LOW COST TECHNIQUES – ESTIMATION AND SPECIFICATION ...................... 43
5. COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS ...................................................................... 47
5.1 BASED ON THE TIME CONSUMPTION ............................................................ 48

5.2 BASED ON LABOUR ..................................................................................... 49
5.3 BASED ON LOW COST TECHNIQUES ............................................................. 51
5.3.1. Some cost reduction techniques now in practice in India .................. 52
5.3.2. Type of Construction in Kerala .......................................................... 55
5.4 COMPARISON OF CASE STUDIES .................................................................. 57
6. INFERENCE ................................................................................................. 58
6.1 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 59

6.2 SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS ...................................................................... 60
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................... 61
TABLE OF FIGURES
2. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF THE TECHNOLOGY
FIGURE 2. 1 .............................................................................................................................. 10
FIGURE 2. 2 ............................................................................................................................... 10
FIGURE 2. 3 ............................................................................................................................... 11
FIGURE 2. 4 ............................................................................................................................... 12
FIGURE 2. 5 ............................................................................................................................... 13
FIGURE 2. 6 ............................................................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 2. 7 ............................................................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 2. 8 ............................................................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 2. 9 ............................................................................................................................... 16
FIGURE 2. 10 ............................................................................................................................. 17
FIGURE 2. 11 ............................................................................................................................. 17
FIGURE 2. 12 ............................................................................................................................. 18
FIGURE 2. 13 ............................................................................................................................. 20
FIGURE 2. 14 ............................................................................................................................. 21
FIGURE 2. 15 ............................................................................................................................. 22
3. CASE STUDIES
FIGURE 3. 1 ............................................................................................................................... 25
FIGURE 3. 2 ............................................................................................................................... 26
FIGURE 3. 3 ............................................................................................................................... 27
FIGURE 3. 4 ............................................................................................................................... 28
FIGURE 3. 5 ............................................................................................................................... 29
FIGURE 3. 6 ............................................................................................................................... 30
FIGURE 3. 7 ............................................................................................................................... 30
FIGURE 3. 8 ............................................................................................................................... 31
4. PROCESS INVOLVED IN 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY
FIGURE 4. 1 ............................................................................................................................... 36
FIGURE 4. 2 ............................................................................................................................... 36
FIGURE 4. 3 ............................................................................................................................... 38
FIGURE 4. 4 ............................................................................................................................... 44
FIGURE 4. 5 ............................................................................................................................... 46
5. COMPARITIVE AANALYSIS
FIGURE 5. 1 ............................................................................................................................... 49
FIGURE 5. 2 ............................................................................................................................... 50
FIGURE 5. 3 ............................................................................................................................... 50
FIGURE 5. 4 ............................................................................................................................... 56
METHODOLOGY
Futuristic Technology in Architecture | Balaji Munirathinam
1. INTRODUCTION
0
1.1. Problematic scenario

We are in an era of technological advancement and new innovations or
discoveries are made every day, we went to space, found new marine species and
even snapped an image of black hole. But we never lost our interest on the civil
and the architectural fields, as it also has its own innovations and adapting
techniques and technologies to make our life easier and efficient. We are fighting
a single dimension here and that is “time”, which can’t be bent or flex with our
will, as we are fighting to keep up with its speed and make the most of it. Though
we spend most of our time building our houses or other necessary buildings for a
reason amount of time, and what if we could shrink it to a day or a week, what if
we could keep up with the time.
Technology has proved some few things by speed some of the long term
processes to instant setup such has trans-communication over longer distances
and transportation with the speed of sound and so. We, humans have needs based
on the comforts and greedy, and we are exploiting the technology for our personal
and other purposes. Even if the resources are depleting, we tend to exploit the
Mother Nature. We couldn’t stop our needs and our needs grow bigger and bigger
every minute.
But still scientists and other innovators are inventing new alternative
solutions to satisfy our needs. In architectural field, the traditional method of
constructing a building with the help of concrete and mortar has proved efficient
and progressive through several decades, but as for now we need to change our
traditions and construction practices in order to prevent further crisis in the near
future.
What if we have found a new technology that could replace the traditional
constructional techniques and which could be also a cost effective method. Let’s
see about an interesting technique which was invented few decades.
1
Questions
 Our current stage of exploration in 3D printing technology?

 Is the new technology cause any harm to the humans?
 Are the new technique is reliable, durable, and cost effective?
1.2. Abstract
My interest in digital fabrication began at an early age, playing with the
simple pieces of LEGO sets to construct rollercoasters and skyscrapers in
virtually limitless collaborations. I remember thinking to myself even then, "Why
isn't everything this easy?" To be fair, I was a bit more whimsical with the scope
of the idea back then, but I find the same question echoing in my head today.
As an adult, with working knowledge of the physical environment and memories

of that childhood play, I thought long and hard about how such simple methods
could be applied on the grand-scale of engineering for the masses. At times, the
search proved difficult, always spiralling away from simplicity and into the
realms of complexity, but eventually, progress was made and is presented in this
paper.
3D printing can be nowadays considered a consolidated technology, at least in its

technical aspects. However, the adoption of such manufacturing technique to
architecture engineering and construction (AEC) is not widespread yet, as the
sector is not yet completely ready for the introduction of innovative production
methods, in comparison to other more innovative sectors.
1.3. Aim
The main aim of this paper is to state the Evolution and Mechanism of 3D
printing technology and its implementation in Architecture and Interior industry.
Various techniques were used to achieve Low Cost Construction, but 3D printing
technology is in its initial stages of accomplishing the Low Cost Construction by
fully printing a 3D Printed House.
2
1.4. Objectives
Integrating the 3D printing technology into the design methodological
framework may allow for better concept communication, a more realized
understanding of the form and function, and a way to realize opportunities in
design with greater efficiency than through traditional methods.
While 3D printing technology affect many industrial sectors, it also has a

significant impact on the construction sector, a market in which it now offers clear
advantages over traditional methods. Manufacturers of the concrete 3D printing
techniques are starting to present innovative and economical projects that could
well become the future tomorrow’s houses, buildings and Architecture.
The objectives are listed out as:
1. To explore the 3D printing technology through its history and evolution

of the instruments used to construct.
2. To find out the importance of incorporating the concepts in the design
process using 3D printing technology.
3. To measure the future predictions in the Architectural and construction
sector by the impact of 3D printing technology.
4. To understand the materials used in 3D printing technology and its
properties.
5. To explore the softwares used to create a 3D model and its criteria to
produce a 3D printing model and its procedures.
6. To study the existing 3D printed models and buildings to measure its
impact on the architecture and construction sector.
3
1.5. Scope
Enormous amount of discoveries and techniques were discovered in 3D
Printing Technology in various sectors, and my focus is towards its progress in
Architectural Field.
The detail study of AMoC (Additive Manufacturing of Concrete) will be

described and document based on Case Studies. The environmental factors are
considered and applied in the construction of 3D printed Structure.
The potentials of 3D printing technology in Architectural Field will be

analysed. The time and cost constrains will be calculated and analysed by
comparing the techniques with other cost efficient and less time consuming
construction techniques.
The current state of the 3D printing technology is explained and the future
of the Architectural Sector towards 3D Printing technology will be derived. The
Concrete beams and reinforcements in 3D printing technology will also be
studied and documented.
1.6. Limitations
This report focuses on constructing a low cost residential module and its
techniques.
1. The extent of the 3D printing technology and other

accomplishments are avoided.
2. Roofing techniques are not covered in this report as it requires more
resources and experimentation.
3. Multi-level buildings and commercial buildings are still under
experimentation stages and are included in this report.
4. Experimentations, self-analysis and other such report part are not
included in this documentation.
4
2. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF

THE TECHNOLOGY
5
2.1. Introduction
The three dimensional printing technology as we know today has many
names and technique based nomenclature such as Additive Manufacturing or
Rapid Prototyping. Many people still think that 3-D printing technology is a
complicated process but it is as simple as it is, by adding the base material layer
by layer. The people accepts a certain technology in a period of time and 3-D
printing technology dates back to 1980s. We will be looking down the history and
the evolution of the technology as the industrial revolution transforming the way
of living.
2.1.1. Process of 3D Printing Technology

1. Manufacturing complexity is free: printing a complex object
does not require more time, money and skill as a simple one.
2. Variety is free: different geometries can be printed by the same
printer each time it operates, which differs from the traditional
factory machines that needs re-calibration for each new type of
object to be manufactured.
3. No assembly required: a traditional multi-parts object can be 30
printed in one shot as a single object thus eliminating the so long
time used assembly line. As some components of a product can
be produced continents away, this feature can save time and cost
on labour and transportation, and making the production more
sustainable.
4. Zero lead time: the possibility of on-the-spot manufacturing can
engage local companies and individuals to print custom objects
on-demand.
5. Unlimited design space: a printer can create such shapes that
would have been very hard or impossible to create with the
6
traditional machines, reaching the possibility to create shapes

that until now existed only in nature.
6. Zero skill manufacturing: calibrating a printer to create an
object requires less operator skills as the process is almost fully
automated.
7. Compact, portable manufacturing: a 30 printer has more
manufacturing capacity than a traditional machine as it can print
objects as big as its volume or larger if the print head is attached
to a robotic arm.
8. Less waste by-product: as it is an additive manufacturing
technique, zero or less waste is produced.
9. Infinite shades of materials: one of the holly-grails of 30
printing is to print with multiple materials to create new type of
materials and geometries with new proprieties and behaviours.
10. Precise physical replication: an object can be scanned and
printed in the same shape. Any scientific, medical or design
intervention can be made on the replica, thus leaving the
original unaltered.
2.2. History and Evolution

1980–1981: Hideo Kodama (Nagoya Municipal Industrial Research
Institute) invented and described two first additive manufacturing techniques
based on photo-hardening of plastic polymers. This seminal work can be
considered the ancestor of both photopolymerization and stereolithography. An
application for patent was filed, but the inventor did not follow up within the
required one-year deadline after application.
1984: Jean-Claude André (CNRS), Alain le Méhauté (CGE/Alcatel) and

Olivier de Witte (Cilas) filed an application for patent of stereolithography, i.e.,
an additive manufacturing method whereby a laser beam selectively hardens a
7
UV-sensitive liquid resin, following a sequence of cross-sections of the object to

be printed. The patent filing was abandoned, and Chuck Hull filed a patent,
granted in 1986. The system was based on ultraviolet laser light beams hardening
cross-section by cross-section a resin contained in a vat. The .stl file extension
Hull adopted is still in use today for most AM. He also founded 3D Systems, a
company manufacturing 3D printers.
1987: Carl R. Deckard invented at UT-Austin the selective laser sintering

technique, based on high-power (usually pulsed) laser beam that selectively fuses
powder particles along cross-sections of the desired shape. The powder can
consist in plastic, metal, ceramic or glass, and is usually pre-heated in the bed just
below the fusion point. A patent for a similar technique was filed in 1979 by R.
F. Housholder, but it was not commercialized.
1989–1990: S. Scott Crump invented and patented the most popular 3D

printing technique to date, especially for hobbyists and low-budget labs: fused
deposition modeling (FDM). It consists in the deposition of fused material—most
commonly plastic—layer by layer, according to a .stl file. The first machines were
commercialized by Scott Crump’s company Stratasys starting from 1992, and a
patent was granted (expired in 2009).
1993: MIT developed what, strictly speaking, was considered 3D printing.

The technique consisted in the binding—layer by layer—of a bed of powder using
an inkjet printer, hence the name. In 1993, yet another technique was introduced
by Sanders Prototype, Inc., now Solidscape: the ‘dot-on-dot’ technique. It was
based on polymer jetting with soluble supports, yielding very high-precision
results. The models were originally printed in wax.
1995: The Fraunhofer Institute ILT, Aachen, invented the selective laser
melting process. The process—which yields precise and mechanically strong
outputs, given the use of metal alloys, and can handle nested and intricate
geometries—consists in the melting, layer by layer, of metal powder by means of
8
a laser beam. Selective laser sintering is a similar process, whereby metal powder
is not completely fused, hence does not form as much of a coherent and
homogeneous mass as an output.
1999: Bioprinting techniques were successfully experimented at Wake

Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine. 2004: Adrian Bowyer developed the
RepRap open-source project, aimed at creating self-replicable 3D printers, in an
effort to diffuse and democratize AM technology.
2008: Shapeways was launched in the Netherlands. It consists in an on-line

service, allowing users to send 3D files to have objects printed and sent to the
required address.
2009: Makerbot created a DIY kit for 3D printers which will highly
contribute to the diffusion of the technique in many households. 2011: The
opportunities offered by 3D printing techniques as production rather than pure
prototyping tools were made even clearer by the Southampton University Laser
Sintered Aircraft (SULSA), an unmanned aircraft whose structure was printed,
from the wings to the integral control surfaces by a laser sintering machine, with
a resolution of 100 micrometres per layer. The unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)
could be assembled without tools, using ‘snap fit’ techniques.
2.3. Classification
Additive manufacturing process is a simple process of adding layer by
layer to give a replica of the digital model. We may have learnt in a science class
that sun light rays focused on a particular point can heat up the region and the
laws of thermodynamics. Because the additive manufacturing mainly focuses on
these principles.
9
Figure 2. 1 3D printed bowl based on selective fusion
2.3.1. Selective fusion

This is one of the simple process in the science which was incorporated in
the Additive Manufacturing technology. The process is defined as the sun beam
is set to focus on the particles such as silicon powder or sand which melts under
high temperature. In one way it works on renewable resources and doesn’t causes
any harm to the environment, but it requires solar energy to work and the end
product is almost rough and requires further finishing to make it look perfect.
Figure 2. 2
10
The procedure of selective fusion is followed as:
1. A laser source or sun sends a laser beam to solidify the material

2. The elevator raises and lowers the platform to help lay the layers.
3. The vat or build platform contains the material used to create the 3D
objects.
4. An advanced 3D printers can use one more materials, including the
plastic, resin, titanium, polymers, and even gold and silver.
5.
2.3.1.1. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)

The machine doesn’t uses a printing head and instead it uses thin sheets of
paper, plastic, or metal to laminate them into a 3D object. The computer defines
the movements of the laser which cuts the surface into a cross section. When one
layer is done, a new sheet is overlapped on the previous one and the process
repeats. At the end, when all the sheets have been cut, a pressing force is applied
to fuse all the cross section into a solid object. This process is a combination of
additive manufacturing and subtractive manufacturing as it involves remaining
parts of the sheets after the cuts out.
Figure 2. 3
11
2.3.1.2. Stereolithography (SL)

One of the oldest methods of 30 printing, is using a UV-sensitive liquid
photopolymer that solidifies in contact with a laser beam. The printer contains a
tank filled with this liquid and a laser traces the shape of the cross sections of an
object that is attached to a vertically moving supporting platform. After the first
layer is done, the platform is lowered by a small distance and while the object
sinks, the liquid floods its top part. The object can be as well suspended by the
platform and risen out of the liquid In this case the laser beam works from below
and the object is created from the top.
Figure 2. 4
2.3.2. Selective deposition
Selective Deposition method is a simple method of adding the material

layer by layer and also by drying the material simultaneously in order to provide
more strength and durability. The printer lays down successive layers of liquid
powder, paper, or metal material and builds the model from a series of cross-
sections. The motor draws the plastic filament or other material, melts them and
pushes the melted substances through the print nozzle. The framework moves
based on the computer input and the framework differs in the respective printers.
12
The print head move in 3 dimensional directions printing several cross-sections,

which dries and gives the 3D solid object.
Figure 2. 5
2.3.2.1. Contour Crafting

It is a fused deposition modeling technique that is mostly used for large
scale designs with possible implementation in architecture. It is similar to a
desktop printer with the difference that it can use architecture construction
materials such as concrete and clay while the printing head can be attached to a
robotic arm or a mobile printer for a more flexible reach to the printing area. The
advantage is that it represents a cheap alternative to the traditional concrete
construction approach in which the concrete is poured in a pre-exiting mold.
While it is advantageous for vertical wall contour construction, it has a deficit in
horizontal concrete slab construction which will still require a prior mold.
13
Figure 2. 6
2.3.2.2. Poly Jet Printing

This process was introduced in the year 2000 and is a technique that makes
use of both the major families of 30 printing processes. It uses a liquid
photopolymer type of plastic that is sprayed through the printer's head onto a
surface while an UV light solidifies the photopolymer in a 3 dimensional object.
Its advantage consist in the printing resolution and it's speed, by printing thin
layers as thin as 16 microns.
It can print as well in multiple materials by using several print heads at

once. It is best for use for industrial and medical applications where speed and
precision plays an important role. The disadvantage is that the photopolymer is a
highly specialized, expensive plastics that respond to UV light and unlike other
plastics, it is fragile and brittle which limits their applications.
14
Figure 2. 7
2.3.2.3. Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)

LENS was among the first 30 printers to use metal. It can spray a metal
powder onto a base substrate. Some of the powder will slide over but some will
be fused by a laser when it reaches the focal point of the laser, thus forming
successive additions to the base metal. Multiple nozzles can be used to spray
different metals such as titanium and stainless steel thus forming an alloy type of
metal that is hard and durable. It can consider as well the ratio of each metal by
spraying from different angles thus creating a graded metal. It is most used in
aerospace and automotive industry and good for creating titanium turbine blades
with internal cooling channels.
Figure 2. 8
15
2.3.2.4. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Fused Deposition Modeling was invented in the 80's and is the most
common type of 3D printing for home use. It usually works by extruding a plastic
filament through the printer's head and laying it down in multiple layers on a
support. One advantage of these printers is that they have a relatively low cost,
they are easy to use and assemble, thus making them most suitable for home use.
Another good thing about this type of printers is that they can extrude any material
that can be extruded including chocolate, cheese or even stem cells to create living
organs. Yet it is biggest strength is also its biggest weakness, as it cannot work
with materials that cannot be created or extruded under specific conditions like
molten metal or glass which requires a different type of printer.
Figure 2. 9
2.3.2.5 Anti-Gravity Object Modeling

The process involves the extrusion of a polymer in the shape of spatial
curves based on the movements of a robotic arm. The material used is a
combination of two polymers that hardens in contact with air. The generated
curves are tough enough support themselves, can be joined together and can be
attached to any surface in any position. The difference between this technique
and others is that the object is made up of successive curves rather than successive
16
layers and can be formed from any direction with the possibility of additions,
connections and extensions in an unlimited space.
Figure 2. 10
Figure 2. 11
2.4. Contour Crafting

When it comes to large scale printing, Contour crafting is the best way to
print it. It is widely used in Architecture to build a 3D building. The printer uses
concrete, recycled construction material and other materials to print an object.
The simple process of additive manufacturing by using Concrete makes the
construction processes easier and cost effective.
The experimental technique—developed in 1998 by Prof. Behrokh

Khoshnevis at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles—combines
17
the extrusion technique, applied to the object ‘surfaces’, to a filler material

injected between the extruded faces, thus creating a solid core.
The technique is suitable for the architectural scale, as it is much faster than
comparable purely extrusion-based techniques, while ‘a wide choice of semi-
fluid materials could be used, such as polymers, ceramics, composite wood
materials, mortar, cement, concrete and other materials, that once deposited by a
nozzle are able to quickly solidify and resist pressure from the weight of the
structure itself. Currently, the Contour Crafting technology can build a 185 m2
house with all utilities for electrical and plumbing systems in less than 24 hours.
Figure 2. 12
Similar to contour crafting, developed at Loughborough University in the United

Kingdom since 2004, it is similar to contour crafting, but allows to control the
resolution of the nozzle for the deposition of both bulk materials and fine detail
within the same process.
18
2.4.1. Types of Machines in Contour Crafting

There are two main machine types: Gantry (or Cartesian) and Delta. Gantry is
based on an extruder moving along the Cartesian X- and Y axes, while the plate
is moving along the Z axis layer by layer. Delta systems, on the contrary, are
based on three arms connected to universal joints at the base, which move within
parallelograms, maintaining a lightweight end-effector in the right orientation. It
yields faster and more accurate output, also given the lightweight traveling parts.
While plastics are the main material used with this technique—specifically
thermoplastics, especially ABS and PLA, and also nylon, PET, HIPS and TPU—
ceramics, clay and cement were recently experimented with.
As to the output, some aspects are noteworthy. First, the printed material tends to
show anisotropic properties, and the strength in the z direction is usually much
lower than in the x and y direction. Second, the printed objects show ‘stepping’,
i.e., a non-smooth, layered surface based on the slicing layers adopted for
printing. Third, not any kind of geometrical shape can be produced with this
technique: in fact, a maximum 45° of overhang, slanted parts can be produced
without the creation of extra supports, which need to be later removed. Lastly,
speed is a serious limitation for this technique to be used outside the boundaries
of mere prototypation: a cube of 20 × 20 20 cm may require more than 24 h to be
printed.
Other two less common machine types are the polar and the robotic arms. Polar
machines work based on an angle and a length, and need only two motors, while
the Gantry needs three. The robotic arm is not just a printing machine per se, but
a printing head can be attached to a robotic arm. Potentially, it delivers much
greater flexibility and printing dimension, especially if the arm is not fixed on the
ground. Both techniques are quite experimental and not very widespread.
19
Figure 2. 13
The possibility of using typical construction materials in architecture—such as

clay and concrete—makes this technique promising for architectural projects.
However, for the time being the quality of the outcomes in terms of ‘resolution’,
precision and printable geometries is not yet sufficient for real projects outside
the field of research.
While not a consolidated technique, it has been experimented with by artists and
researchers. It consists in the extension of the previously analysed technique to
the use of clay and similarly ‘wet’ materials. The main difference—though the
process tends to vary for each experiment—is the absence of a heated print head,
since the material does not have to be fused, while some kind of pressurized
mechanism is usually present to force the muddy material through the nozzle.
2.4.2. Metal Extrusion Technique

It encompasses a series of alternative experimental techniques that are either an
adaptation of the semisolid material extrusion technique to low-melting-point
metal, or the use of gas metal arc fusion welding robots. This is used to provide
reinforcement in the 3D concrete printing, which acts as a steel reinforcement
20
and helps in achieving increasing number of floors. The metal filament is

pushed through the print head and gets heated there and exits through the
nozzle. The metal printing is also used in exteriors for creating statues or
sculptures.
Figure 2. 14
2.5. Current State of 3-Dimensional Printers

This section will try to source 3D printer availability as well as those
produced in Denmark. It will also try to look into the economical, as well as the
ecological aspects which can impede or facilitate usage and adoption. The section
will also look into the current materials made available, but also sources which
provide support to 3D printing technology such as dedicated companies or other
3rd party services, in Denmark. Overall, the relevancy of 3D printing technology
and its adoption as a rapid prototyping method in Denmark is also questioned.
Information within this section is compiled using secondary research
methodology and will try to answer the question: “What is the current state of
3D printing technology within the field of construction or architecture?”
Currently, the 3D printing market for rapid prototyping is divided into two
categories: professional or DIY (Do it yourself). The prices for printers in the
following table are listed with their commercial price after tax in their specific
country. Commercially, a 3D printing machine is considered a duty free product
and the standard VAT rate of 25% is applied if import to Denmark is considered.
21
Further costs, such as shipping and insurance costs can add up to the total
purchase, but this is dependent on the manufacturers and their services.
Plastics are the cheapest materials to come by and are the most used in 3D printing
rapid prototyping. A wide majority of online 3D printing services place them
forward due to their cost effectiveness. Among the most used are:
Polyamide/Nylon powder (PLA), Composite Materials, Resin or transparent
resin, ABS, Objet Resin, Alumide and Prime gray.
Metals still remain a niche category within 3D printing due to their high cost and
availability on request. The most widely used metals are: silver, gold, stainless
steel, titanium, brass and bronze Finishing materials can be of many types, but
the most widespread ones are ceramics, silver-coating, gold coating, spray paints,
resin, polishing substances, colour dyes and even velvet. Among these resin is
widely used for a premium finish. The majority of figurines and models are three
dimensionally printed using resin and painted afterwards. Products are also
printed using ceramics and post processed by traditional glazing.
Figure 2. 15
22
The current 3DCP facility at the Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e)

adopts the Contour Crafting approach. Concrete is mixed with water and pumped
into a hose by a mixer-pump located on the side of the set-up. The hose is
connected to the printer head situated at the end of the vertical arm of a motion-
controlled 4 degree-of-freedom (DOF).
Gantry robot serving a print area of 9×4.5×2.8 m. The motion parameters

maximum speed vmax and maximum acceleration amax. The facility is in operation
since September 2015. Under the pressure of the pump, the concrete is forced
towards the printer head, an element consisting of several parts allowing the
concrete to be printed at the desired location, at the desired speed, and under the
desired angle. The end part of the printer head is the nozzle, a hollow steel
element with a designated section from which the concrete filament leaves the
printer and is deposited on the print surface.
Several nozzle openings have been tried. Initially, a round Ø 25 mm (491 mm2)
opening was used. The resultant round filament, however, was difficult to stack.
Then a square 25×25 mm (625 mm2) section was used. This increases
buildability, but also requires the printer head movement to be programmed such
that the orientation of the nozzle always remains tangent to the tool path.
Otherwise, twisting of the filament will occur although this can also be accepted
as a natural property of printed concrete.
Currently, a 40× 10 mm (400 mm2) opening is used. Like the nozzle opening,
determining a workable default print head speed and pump frequency (and
resultant pump pressure) setting was the result of a parameter sensitivity test
programme. Obviously, these three parameters are closely interrelated, and
highly dependent on the concrete viscosity as well (which is, in turn, a function
of the concrete mix composition and water/cement ratio).
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3. CASE STUDIES
24
3.1 Two-storey house in China, by Beijing-based Hua Shang Tengda.
Hua Shang Tenda is not the first company to claim they have 3D-printed
a house. But they might be the first to have 3D-printed the entire thing at once,
rather than printing and then assembling pieces. First the company erected the
home’s frame, including plumbing pipes. Then they used a huge 3D printer
they’ve been developing for many years to construct the house. They controlled
the process via a computer program. The software includes four systems: one for
“electronic ingredient formulating,” one for mixing the concrete, one for
transmission, and the last to 3D-print the structure.
Figure 3. 1
In 2014, the Chinese Winsun company claimed to have built 10 basic

houses in less than a day, with the area and cost of each one being about 195 m2
and US$4,800, respectively. The company used a large extrusion-based 3D
printer to manufacture the basic house components separately off-site before they
were transported and assembled on site. In 2015, the company also claimed to
have built a 5-story apartment building, with the area of about 1,100 m2, being
currently the tallest 3D printed structure. The company also claimed to have built
a stand-alone concrete villa with interior fittings for a cost of about US$160,000.
The company claimed to 3D print the walls and other components of the structure
offsite and then assembled them together on-site. In 2009,the Chinese Huashang
25
Tengda company in Beijing has recently claimed to 3D print an entire 400 m2

two storey villa ‘on-site’ in 45 days.
Unlike the Winsun company, the Huashang Tengda company uses a unique
process allowing to print an ‘entire house’ ‘on-site’ in ‘one go’. The frame of the
house including conventional steel reinforcements and plumbing pipes were first
erected. Then, ordinary Class C30 concrete containing coarse aggregates was
extruded over the frame and around the rebars through the use of a novel nozzle
design and their gigantic 3D printer.
The Huashang Tengda project seemingly eliminated one of the major

challenges of 3DCP which is incorporation of conventional steel reinforcements
if structural concrete 34th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics
in Construction (ISARC 2017) is to be 3D printed. The company claimed that the
two story villa is durable enough to withstand an earthquake measuring 8.0 on
the Richter scale. Their giant 3D printer has a sort of forked nozzle that
simultaneously lays concrete on both sides of the rebars, swallowing it up and
encasing it securely within the walls.
Figure 3. 2
26
The ambitious company printed the house using 20 tons of strong but
inexpensive concrete, although they say that any type of cement could be utilized
in their process.
The walls are up to eight feet thick, and once they were printed workers
painted and decorated the house. According to Hua Shang Tenda, “This
technology will have immeasurable social benefits…because of its speed, low
cost, simple and environmentally friendly raw materials, it can generally improve
the quality of people’s lives.”
3.2 Five-storey apartment building in Suzhou, China, by Winsun
While architectural firms compete with their designs for 3D-printed dwellings,
one company in China has quietly been setting about getting the job done. In
March of last year, company WinSun claimed to have printed 10 houses in 24
hours, using a proprietary 3D printer that uses a mixture of ground construction
and industrial waste, such as glass and tailings, around a base of quick-drying
cement mixed with a special hardening agent.
Now, WinSun has further demonstrated the efficacy of its technology -- with a
five-storey apartment building and a 1,100 square metre (11,840 square foot)
villa, complete with decorative elements inside and out, on display at Suzhou
Industrial Park.
Figure 3. 3
27
The 3D printer array, developed by Ma Yihe, who has been inventing 3D printers
for over a decade, stands 6.6 metres high, 10 metres wide and 40 metres long (20
by 33 by 132 feet). This fabricates the parts in large pieces at WinSun's facility.
The structures are then assembled on-site, complete with steel reinforcements and
insulation in order to comply with official building standards.
A CAD design is used as a template, and the computer uses this to control the
extruder arm to lay down the material "much like how a baker might ice a cake,"
WinSun said. The walls are printed hollow, with a zig-zagging pattern inside to
provide reinforcement. This also leaves space for insulation.
This process saves between 30 and 60 percent of construction waste, and can
decrease production times by between 50 and 70 percent, and labour costs by
between 50 and 80 percent. In all, the villa costs around $161,000 to build.
Figure 3. 4
The 1,100 square metre 3D-printed villa doesn't look 3D printed from a distance.
And, using recycled materials in this way, the buildings decrease the need for
quarried stone and other materials -- resulting in a construction method that is
both environmentally forward and cost effective.
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Figure 3. 5
In time, the company hopes to use its technology on much larger scale
constructions, such as bridges and even skyscrapers.
3.3 3D printed houses 640ft2 in Austin, Texas, USA by ICON

The first permitted, 3D-printed home created specifically for the
developing world was unveiled today in Austin, Texas by New Story, the non-
profit working to create a world where no human being lives in survival mode,
and ICON, the newly launched construction technologies company leading the
way into the future of homebuilding by using 3D printing to make major
advancements in affordability, building performance, sustainability and
customizability.
The 3D-printed home serves as proof-of-concept for sustainable
homebuilding that will allow for safer, more affordable homes for more families,
faster than ever. The printer, called the Vulcan, is designed to work under the
constraints that are common in places like Haiti and rural El Salvador where
power can be unpredictable, potable water is not a guarantee and technical
assistance is sparse. It’s designed to tackle housing shortages for vulnerable
populations instead of building with profit motivation.
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Figure 3. 6
Conventional construction methods have many baked-in drawbacks and

problems that we’ve taken for granted for so long that we forgot how to imagine
any alternative. With 3D printing, you not only have a continuous thermal
envelope, high thermal mass, and near zero-waste, but you also have speed, a
much broader design palette, next-level resiliency, and the possibility of a
quantum leap in affordability. This isn’t 10% better, it’s 10 times better.
Figure 3. 7
The portable printer is designed to function with near zero-waste and to

work under unpredictable constraints (limited water, power, and labour
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infrastructure) to tackle housing shortages in underserved communities

throughout the world.
New Story’s goal for this project is to print the first community of homes
for underserved families in El Salvador in the coming 18 months, and then
through partnerships, scale up production to serve additional communities over
the next few years. Housing will feature cutting-edge materials tested to the most
recognized standards of safety, comfort and resiliency.
More than just New Story using the technology to reach more families, the
hope is that this catalytic R&D project that will influence the sector as a whole.
Through the technology, the team will learn, iterate, and then share the
technology with other non-profits and governments to help everyone improve and
reach families faster.
Figure 3. 8
The high-powered innovators behind ICON and the first global initiative
with New Story include a cross section of engineers, environmentalists, designers
and entrepreneurs. ICON and New Story worked in close partnership with
several other organizations to develop the Vulcan printer including Pump Studios,
Yaskawa Electric, Alchemy Builders, Tree House, Andrew Logan Architecture,
Linestar Automation and The University of Texas.
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4. PROCESS INVOLVED IN 3D PRINTING

TECHNOLOGY
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4.1 Designing Process

To begin, in order to investigate how 3DP would affect the design process
through this iterative design continuum, it is important to understand the product
design process as well as to know how design and fine art are different especially
in the context of this project. Design can be defined as the act of making, whether
a drawing or product, to express or represent an idea that implies desire, creation,
function, fit, and purpose.
The process of printing a 3D object begins with creating a digital design in

a 3D modeling program (such as CAD) or scanning an existing object using a 3D
scanner. The scanner works by making a copy of the object and then putting it
into a 3D modeling program. Then the design is converted into a digital file that
slices the model into hundreds or thousands of layers. A 3D printer can read each
layer of the design and prints one at a time, seamlessly blending it together as it
prints. The result is a smooth, 3D object that is identical to the original digital
model.
Here are the steps taken in creating a 3D object:
First – the production of a 3D model with the help of computer-aided design

software. The software is likely to give you some suggestion or even a clue
concerning the structure of the ultimate object applying scientific facts about
utilized materials. There are several free 3d modeling software that you may try
to use building your first 3D models:
Google SketchUp – this is a free 3D modeling software from Google. SketchUp

tools let you create your models easy and even without having to figure out how.
Blender – This is a free and open source 3D modeling software. It works on

various operating systems such as Windows, Linux, and Mac OS. The main goal
to create a free, useful software product that allows to complete 3D creation for
everyone either professional artists or beginners.
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3DCrafter – this a free real-time modeling software that allows you to create
complex 3d models using simple 3d primitives. Its various tools and intuitive
drag-and-drop approach make the process of 3D modeling easy and fun. The
standard version is free for downloading, but you may also buy Plus and Pro
versions.
There are a lot of different 3d modeling software either commercial or free that
could be used for designing 3D models. We will describe it in more details in our
future articles.
Second – transformation to STL (standard tessellation language) – the sketch in

CAD format is converted to STL, which is the format initiated especially for 3D
systems in 1987 so as to be used by SLA – stereolithography apparatus. These
STL files are sometimes used together with proprietary file kinds like ObjDF or
ZPR.
Third – removing to AM machine and STL file operating. An STL file is copied
to the computer operating a 3D printer. That’s the same as if you were to install
a 2D printer.
Fourth – setting up the device. Each device has its own prerequisites for how to
use it for each new print. That would mean adding or refilling various materials
the printer will use. That also means adding a tray as a basis or adding some
material to make up an interim water-dissoluble support.
Fifth – creating. The whole procedure is mainly automatic. However they can be
thicker or thinner. Hanging on the size of a thing, machine and materials
employed, the procedure might take several hours or even days. Don’t forget to
check occasionally there are no errors.
Sixth – removal. Take the printed object (or perhaps several objects) out of the
printer. Take them as carefully as possible to prevent injuries.
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Seventh – post-processing. It may happen so that after an object is 3D printed it

will require some post-processing – either it is removing the remaining powder
or the water-soluble supports. Remember that sometimes materials may require
some time to get solid.
Eighth – And finally the object is ready to be used!
4.1.1. File Formats

The 3D printing process requires the 3D model to be of specific format in
order to support the globally used 3D printing industry. The
.STL files
.STL file format probably is one of most popular 3d printer files formats. It is
supported by big variety of 3d printers and most of files that you can find in 3D
model repositories will be in that format.
STL stands for STereoLithography or Standard Tessellation Language. Initially

it was one of main file formats in CAD software created by 3D systems. Currently
this format can be found in many 3D printing software packages, it is simply and
easy to output and probably that is one of reasons why it became so popular.
Since this article is more about 3d printing technologies, however stl files also
used in different areas such as computer-aided manufacturing and rapid
prototyping in common.
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Figure 4. 1
Standard STL files used to describe a surface geometry of 3D object and do not
contain any information about texture, colour or other common properties of 3D
objects that related to CAD models. However there are few variations of STL
files that can contain colour information and it is available in STL files saved in
binary format. Besides the binary format STL file also can be saved in ASCII.
Binary format is used for large stl files.
Figure 4. 2
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.OBJ files
.OBJ (Object Files) is another format of 3d printer files which is also popular in
3D Printing. Initially it was used in Advanced Visualizer animation package
developed by Wavefront Technologies. OBJ file represents 3D geometry alone
and may contain several different attributes most common of them are: vertex
normals, geometric vertices, polygonal faces and texture coordinates.
Objects files as STL files can be either in ASCII (.obj) or binary format (.mod).
More technical information about OBJ format can be found here.
.3DS files
.3DS 3d print files format is one of formats developed by Autodesk and initially
used in their Autodesk 3D Studio software package. 3DS files were very popular
in mid 90s and became one of common industry standards along with OBJ for 3D
models.
3DS file is a binary file format and it based on chunks or blocks that contain data,
its length and a chunk identifier. Chunks in 3d printer files of 3DS format form a
hierarchical structure which is similar to XML DOM tree.
.3MF files
3MF file format is a new one and was recently presented by Microsoft. It should
allow to make 3d printing easier for all users and especially for those who will
install new Windows 10 operating system that will have Autodesk’s 3D printing
platform Spark integrated into it. 3MF is not a new format which has existed for
years and Microsoft has just completely overhauled it.
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Figure 4. 3
There are following benefits of using 3MF 3d printer files format:
• All information about 3D model contained in one single archive
• 3MF format is extensible, which means that additional information can be

added to it
• It is designed specifically to be an additive manufacturing format
• Define Human-readable XML and well-known binary formats like JPEG

and PNG
• Open royalty-free specification from 3MF members who agreed to make

necessary patent claims available.
4.2 Execution Process

In the last few years, 3D printing concrete concept has been developed
around the world. The use of concrete and cement-based materials in combination
with 3D printing continues to grow with time. In this context, the process, which
started with small non-structural applications, started to produce large scale
structures with the increase of large-scale companies that adopt and develop the
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3D printing method. Below is a list of some of the worldwide examples on 3D

concrete printing productions.
Contour Crafting and Concrete Printing technologies, while demonstrating

many technological advantages, are subjected to some inherent limitations
such as the necessity of using new and advanced machinery, small mineral
aggregate sizes (fine-aggregate mortar rather 263 than concrete), and limited
size of the printed elements (i.e. the size of the 3D printer must be larger
than the size of the element to be printed).
To overcome these limitations, a novel approach for 3DCP technology

for on-site construction, named CONPrint3D, is currently being developed at
the TU Dresden, Germany, which intends to bring 3DCP directly into the
building sites. The main advantages of CONPrint3D technology are high
geometrical flexibility, usage of commonly used construction machinery and
low dependency on skilled labour.
One of the focal points of CONPrint3D is not only to develop a time,

labour and resource efficient advanced construction process but also to make
the new process economically viable while achieving broader acceptance from
the existing industry practitioners. This is achieved by using existing
construction and production techniques as much as possible and by adapting
the new process to construction site constraints. One vital aspect of the project
strategy is adapting a concrete boom pump to deliver material to specific
positions autonomously and accurately using a custom-developed print head
attached to the boom.
Requirements of concrete for 3D printing

 Extrudability: Extrusion process is the ability of concrete to pass through
a concrete pump, transmission pipe and spray nozzle without any change
in its physical properties. Good extrudability is achieved by co-application
of Self-Compacting Concrete and Shotcrete principles to the mixture. The
39
concrete must have a smooth flow rate to allow the printer to pour into
layers on top of each other. If the structure has a lot of architectural
detail, the printing speed must be adjusted accordingly, so the system
does not waste the extrusion material and the quality of the concrete printed
material is flawless. Excessive build-up of concrete during printing results
in poor surface coating resulting from incorrect control of the system. The
construction of concrete layers with extrusion and the fresh concrete
properties of 3D concrete is mentioned in many studies, but a suitable test
method has not been defined to evaluate this concrete property.
 Buildability: Buildability can be defined as the ability of the underlying
concrete layer to harden and carry the other layers before the next concrete
layer is placed on the printed layer. In that way, a suitable platform is
provided for the construction of the concrete on each floor. Extrudability
and Buildability are the most important features of concrete in 3D printing.
The requirements of both of them are related to the workability of concrete.
It is found that in the 3D production method, the sub-layers should not
deform by the weight of the top-layer, but also the interlayers must adhere
and they have to be well connected with the upper layers to be able to form.
Factors that affect Buildability are: Chemical admixtures, temperature and
using of less gypsum cement.
 Workability: The quality of the final printed structure is significantly
influenced by the properties of the fresh concrete after being poured,
remain intact and have sufficient workability (can be extruded)and does
not collapse under a load of successive layers. Conventional methods for
evaluating workability include the slump, compression factor and flow
tests for which various national standards are available. The workability of
3D printing concrete is affected by small changes in environmental
conditions (temperature, humidity, raw material moisture etc.). To increase
the workability of the 3D concrete mixture viscosity modifying agent
40
should be added and the mixture must have a small particle size to suit the
nozzle diameter. The adjustment of the workability of 3D concrete for
pumpability and extrudability is similar to the wet process production of
the Shotcrete Concrete (Lim et al. 2011). It is essential that viscosity
modifying agents are used in 3D concrete printing. Because, these agents
change the rheology by adding thixotropic properties to the concrete. By
this way, the viscosity of the concrete decreases when the force is applied
provides comfortable workability and good pumpability, and when the
application of power stops, the viscosity increases so that a good skid
resistance is obtained in the concrete.
 Open time: The workability time of a cement material is generally
associated with the setting time, measured by a Vicat. This equipment is
designed to determine the start and end time of the setting, and cannot be
used to characterize the change in the workability of fresh concrete over
time. Several studies have been carried out to monitor the change in
workability over time using the crash test. However, it is not appropriate
to perform a crash test to determine the open time duration. Measuring the
sliding force overtime gives more informative results in terms of measuring
workability. The Open time period is determined as the period of time
when the workability of fresh concrete for 3D concrete is sufficient to
maintain extrudability. This means that the open time is the time during
which the 3D concrete's Pumpability, Printability and Buildability are
consistent within acceptable tolerances.
 Contact strength between layers: In placing the concrete on top of each
other, the interfacial adherence must be strong in order to obtain a solid
structure. Therefore, the concrete should not be in a hardened condition,
but instead of hydrating the concrete, the preceding layer should continue
when concrete is placed on the surface. In other words, the cold joint must
not occur. To ensure this, some researchers have emphasized the
41
importance of the shape of the layers. The shape of layers can be modified
by varying the printing nozzle's shapes. Besides the size and shape of
nozzles, the printer should rotate 90 degrees around the corners in order to
shape the corners accurately for the structure. To provide corners of 90
degrees, the versatility of the 3D concrete printer is taken into
consideration and tested many times before actual printing.
 Aggregates: Aggregates play a very important role in the process of 3D
concrete. The type and size of aggregate used in the concrete mixture have
an effect on the load-bearing capacity of the structure. Nozzle sizes change
between 20 mm and 40 mm. Accordingly, the size of the aggregates should
be greater than 4-6 mm in order to prevent the nozzle from blocking. The
use of coarse aggregates also leads to instability in the printing structure,
causing collapse of the structure formation.
 Water-cement ratio: The water-cement ratios have been experimented
from 0.25-0.44 by various researchers. The use of the minimum amount
of water with superplasticizers is important for the better adhesion of
concrete. In addition, it was determined that the addition of materials such
as fly ash, silica fume and slag could be beneficial to the mixture if it is
added by 5 to 30% of the total binder volume.
4.3 Application of 3D Printing in Concrete Construction

The first attempt to adopt AM in construction using cementitious materials
was made by Pegna. An intermediate process was used to glue sand layers
together with a Portland cement paste. Unlike the conventional approach of
casting concrete into a formwork, 3DCP will combine digital technology and
new insights from materials technology to allow freeform construction
without the use of expensive formwork. The freeform construction would
enhance architectural expression, where the cost of producing a structural
component will be independent of the shape, providing the much needed
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freedom from the rectilinear designs. When compared with conventional

construction processes, the application of 3D printing techniques in concrete
construction may offer excellent advantages including:
1. Reduction of construction costs by eliminating formwork;
2. Reduction of injury rates by eliminating dangerous jobs (e.g., working

at heights), which would result in an increased level of safety in construction;
3. Creation of high-end-technology-based jobs;
4. Reduction of on-site construction time by operating at a constant

rate;
5. Minimizing the chance of errors by highly precise material deposition;
6. Increasing sustainability in construction by reducing wastages of

formwork,
7. Increasing architectural freedom, which would enable more

sophisticated designs for structural and aesthetic purposes; and
8. Enabling potential of multifunctionality for structural/architectural

elements by taking advantage of the complex.
4.4 Low Cost Techniques – Estimation and Specification

Printable 3D homes represent the latest wave in the construction, but they
are not always cheap to build.
Earlier this year, architectural start up Branch Technology developed a

prototype of a 1,000-square-foot 3D home that would cost around $300,000 – a
price that’s too high to be considered a solution to Global crisis. That’s all about
to change thanks to the collaboration between New Story, a San Francisco-based
housing non-profit, and ICON, a construction technology company that designs
3D printer. In March, the companies unveiled the first permitted, 3D printed home
43
in America: a 350-square-foot structure that costs around $10,000 and just took
just 48 hours to build.
At the time, the printer – known as the Vulcan – was only running at 25%
speed. This gives the companies confidence that they can build a 600- to 800-
square-foot home in just 24 hours for a price tag of $4,000 or less. Prior to using
3D technology, it took New Story eight months to build 100 homes, which each
cost around $6000.
While the initial test run took place in Austin, Texas, the companies plan
to produce their first string of homes in El Salvador, a country whose rough
terrain and frequent flood have made housing construction incredibly difficult.
From there, they hope to provide safe houses to some of the 1.3 billion global
citizens who currently reside in Slums.
Example #1: Apis Cor's House
One rather promising project comes from Russia. Apis Cor is a Russian
company that specializes in developing a mobile construction 3D printer, which
is capable of printing whole buildings completely on site.
Figure 4. 4
44
To demonstrate the potential and the abilities of their mobile construction

3D printer, Apis Cor built a 410-square-foot house. The 3D printed house cost
the company approximately $10,150, an incredibly low amount for constructing
a home.
Here’s a more detailed list of costs, according to the company’s website:
 Foundation: $277
 Walls: $1624
 Floor and roof: $2434
 Wiring: $242
 Windows and doors: $3548
 Exterior finishing: $831
 Interior finishing (including suspended ceiling): $1178
The company even decorated the house, both inside and outside. The
exterior’s been painted, and inside the house is equipped with a fridge, a big
screen TV, and a sofa, along with other pieces of furniture. The cost of furniture
is obviously not included in the above. Apis Cor simply wanted to demonstrate
what the finished house could look like.
Example #2: ICON – A House for as Low as $4,000
The house you’re looking was 3D printed by a company called ICON in Texas.
ICON specializes in developing low-cost construction solutions, hence why their

highlight project is this 3D printed house.
In collaboration with non-profit organization New Story, ICON plans to build a

whole neighbourhood of these low-cost 3D printed houses in El Salvador. The
45
goal is to provide homes for people who, unfortunately, don’t yet have
appropriate living conditions.
Figure 4. 5
The prototype for the 3D printed house cost around $10,000, but the company
claims that it can bring that down to only $4000, which is great news. The
approximate build time for ICON’s 3D printed house is roughly 24h.
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5. COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS
47
5.1 Based on the time consumption
This process of change, driven by the globalization dynamics, the

technological evolution, the energy and environmental issues, is also being
pushed by a new approach to the architectural design, that, rejecting the wiles of
the exhibition end in itself, is increasingly the difference in terms of quality,
performance, sustainability, time and costs and therefore competitiveness of both
designers and construction companies.
Reducing, simplifying, inventing, using old and new materials: the "plainness"
resulting from the actual reduction of resources defines an architecture maybe not
better but certainly new, an avant-garde that prepares the ground for future
buildings totally sustainable, evidence of a renewed approach to the architectural
project, mature for the construction of a new world where the humanity and its
needs are again the main issue.
 Panellised units are produced in a factory and assembled on-site to

produce a three dimensional structure. Open panels consist of a skeletal
structure only, whereas more advanced panels may include lining
material, insulation services, windows, doors, internal wall finishes and
external claddings.
 Volumetric construction involves the production of three-dimensional
modular units in controlled factory conditions prior to transport to site.
 Hybrid techniques combine both panellised and volumetric approaches.
Typically, volumetric units (sometimes referred to as pods) are used for
the highly serviced and more repeatable areas such as kitchens and
bathrooms, with the remainder of the dwelling or building constructed
using panels.
 Other modern methods of construction may use floor or roof cassettes,
pre-cast concrete foundation assemblies, pre-formed wiring looms, and
48
mechanical engineering composites. They can also include innovative

techniques such as tunnel form or thin-joint block work
Modern methods of construction are about better products and processes. They
aim to improve business efficiency, quality, customer satisfaction,
environmental performance, sustainability and the predictability of delivery
timescales. Modern methods of construction are, therefore, more broadly
based than a particular focus on product. They engage people and process to
seek improvement in the delivery and performance of construction.
5.2 Based on Labour
Many modern methods of construction use on-site labour less intensively

than more established building methods. This is because part of the construction
work is undertaken by a different workforce operating in factory conditions. In
our example, a volumetric approach allowed a development to be completed with
a quarter of the on-site labour required using more established methods.
Figure 5. 1
49
Even greater labour savings may be possible if claddings other than brick are
acceptable.
Figure 5. 2
Figure 5. 3
These construction techniques make it possible to build up to four times as much

using the same onsite labour. This is crucially important when work for the
London Olympics, coupled with a policy to build more homes, will place
increasing demands on existing resources. There is uncertainty about whether on-
site labour supply will increase to match higher demand, particularly in the light
50
of recent reports from the Chartered Institute of Building of existing widespread

recruitment problems.
Modern methods of construction have the potential to provide more building

work with existing on-site labour, particularly as factory based production does
not generally draw from the same labour pool as on-site construction and is not
competing for the same skills.
5.3 Based on Low Cost techniques
If on the one hand, housing policies are responsible for providing the
prescriptive and economic instruments to provide a "roof over their heads" for the
needy, on the other hand the architectural debate has to wonder about the types,
the aggregation and the technology for the construction of these dwelling, as long
as they are not merely "shelters", but structures able to properly answer to new
needs expressed by the society and inspired by sustainable issue. The requests for
a radical change, then, must involve both the design and construction process: the
renewal cannot prescind from the application of energy saving devices, the
application of construction methods that minimize energy waste and maximize
recycling on one side, but it has also to bring up to date the housing types, as
spacial devices capable of hosting new social behaviours.
Modern methods of construction other than open panel techniques continue

to be slightly more expensive than more established techniques but the cost
ranges for different techniques overlap substantially. The large overlap means
that, in any particular set of conditions, a modern method of construction could
be as cost-effective as brick and block, or more cost effective. The next section
explores the circumstances that can enhance or undermine the relative cost-
effectiveness of modern methods of construction.
Prefabrication in housing is not new, but problems arose over the quality
of building materials and poor workmanship, leading to a negative public attitude
51
towards prefabrication; today, for these reasons, the majority of homes are still
constructed using traditional “brick and block” masonry. However, within the last
few years there has been increased use of modern methods of construction, driven
by a range of factors including demands for faster construction and skills
shortages. Many of the benefits of using prefabricated components are yet
unproven or contentious, but they are in any case referable to the different
component of the “generic cost” of a building:
 economic cost, as housing could be build more quickly and with

fewer defects, in particular reducing on-site construction time up to
50% and thus reducing labour costs;
 social cost, as there may be fewer accidents, thanks to the highly
skilled labour for precise on-site labour, and less impact on local
residents during construction;
 Environmental cost, as the building can be more energy efficient,
may involve less transport of materials, and produce less waste.
These strengths, connected to the economic benefits of mass production

and standardization already highlighted during the reconstruction after the
Second World War and stressed by the Modern Movement, are of new
importance in the contemporary historical period focused in particular on solving
the problems of energy efficiency.
5.3.1. Some cost reduction techniques now in practice in India
For cutting down the construction cost various cost reducing devices have
been introduced by Yirmithi at National level and COSTFORD Centres in the
state for their large scale housing construction. Some of them are the following.
Thinner walls or single brick thick walls
Using thinner walls in construction and single brick thick walls, enhance
the structural safety of buildings
52
Load bearing brick work
It is now possible to construct 4-5 storey buildings in load bearing brick-

work. By the adoption of this technique 5 - 15 percent saving in cost is achieved
depending upon the structural requirements, type and strength of bricks etc. Over
1,60,000 houses have so far been constructed with this technique by the major
construction agencies like central PWD (CPWD). Delhi Development Authority
(DDA), Military Engineering Service (MES), Tamil Nadu Housing Board, Tamil
Nadu Slum Clearance Board, PWD West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh etc.
It is recommended by CBRI that due to the adoption of thinner section of

wall and newer type of bonding, the load carrying capacity of walls subjected to
axil and eccentric loads should be reduced by 15 percent. By the adoption of 19
cm thick walls 17 percent saving in construction of bricks and mortar is achieved.
As both the faces of the walls are even, only 10 mm thick plaster is required. An
additional advantage by the use of this technique is the increase in floor area for
the same plinth area. Using this techniques several LIG and EWS houses were
completed at Ludhiana under NB0 Experimental Housing Scheme. Some houses
were constructed in Tamil Nadu also.
Brick-on-Edge Cavity Wall
The Central Building Research institute (CBRI) Roorkee has developed a

technique of construction of brick-on-edge 20 cm thick cavity wall (CBRl Data
Sheet 1972) which consists of two masonry leaves each of 7.5 cm thickness with
a continuous air gap of 5 cm between them. The leaves are tied together either by
corrosion proof metal ties or brick or concrete blocks. Two storey residential
buildings could be constructed with such cavity of bricks having crushing
strength not less than 100 N/mm2 and mortar not leaner than 1: 3 in cement or 1:
1: 6 in cement and lime. The adoption of brick cavity walls result in a saving of
up to 30 percent in bricks and mortars, 15 percent in overall cost as compared to
23 cm thick brick walls and the inner leaves remains dry. This technique was used
53
for the construction of middle school buildings in shantinagar, Roorkee and by

University of Roorkee for lecturer's residences. It was also used under NB0
Experimental Housing Scheme for Assistant Professor quarters at Thapar
Institute of Technology, Patiala and Several double storey quarters in Gandhi
Nagar Township, Gujarat, and a large number of both institutional and residential
buildings in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Precast stone masonry block
Stone masonry wall is 15-20 percent cheaper in cost as compared to

random rubble masonry where bricks are costly. .A large number of houses have
been constructed with stone masonry blocks in different parts of the country by
different construction organisations. In the Northern districts of Kerala, majority
of the houses are constructing by using precast stone masonry block. In Andhra
Pradesh and west Bengal Prefab factories have come up which supply these
blocks.
Modular Brick Masonry Walls
To introduce and achieve the benefits of modular planning in building

construction it is necessary to produce bricks in a module of 10 cm. The nominal
size of modular brick is 20 cm X 10 cm and so it has some advantages over the
conventional bricks viz,
(i) It gives more floor area
(ii) Results in up to 10% saving in the quantity of bricks and 24% in the
consumption of mortar and
(iii) Consumes less clay and coal.
Hollow Clay Blocks for Shell Type Houses
Hollow clay blocks are arranged in a category profile and supported over
a foundation of random rubble or brick masonry. The shell serves both as wall
54
and roof for the house. There is considerable saving in cement and no steel is
used. About 15% saving in cost could be achieved. A large number of houses
have been constructed with hollow clay blocks in the states of Kerala and Tamil
nadu.
Sundried Brick walls with Waterproof Treatment
The use of mud walls is still a predominant feature in villages. Such walls require
continuous attention and repair every year as the rain erode them. CBRl Roorkee
has developed a non-erodible mud plaster which makes the walls water repellent.
When the mud plaster is partially dry a leaping of cow dung and soil (1 : l) is
applied. When it is dry, the surface can be white or colour washed if desired.
Precast Hyperbolic shell for roofing
By adoption of Hyperbolic shell roofing system (NB0 1980) beams and

columns could be avoided and long spans such as stores, halls, etc. could be
covered in an economical way. The use of such type of shells require less
maintenance and are aesthetically pleasing. Anyway, the proper handling of man-
power and materials requirement is very necessary to reduce the construction
cost. An estimate of man power and materials is generally required prior to the
start of actual construction for seeking technical and other administrative
sanction, calculating the requirement of various materials and labour, planning
and budgeting purposes, calling and Justification of tenders etc
5.3.2. Type of Construction in Kerala

There are various types of building constructions generally applied by the
low-cost housing agencies in Kerala. Some of them are viz,
(i) Modular constructions

(ii) Wood - Frame Modular Constructions
(iii) Masonry Modular Constructions,
(iv) Plank and Beam Constructions, etc.
55
Modular constructions
Modular construction is a method of designing and building a house in

which the component parts sized according to some agreed upon basic unit of
length or module.
Wood-Frame Modular Construction
The National Forest Products Association has developed what it calls the
Unicom method of house construction that seeks to fit traditional lumber sizes
and building products into the 4 - in-module. The object is to maximise the use
of modular components and minimise the cost of construction.
Figure 5. 4
Masonry Modular Construction
Modular masonry construction is also in the 4-in-module, although the

individual bricks and concrete blocks are not. A masonry wall, is of course,
constructed with mortar joints between the masonry units and in modular
construction the thickness of these mortar joints is considered part of the modular
dimension.
56
Plank-and-Beam construction
Also known as "post and beam construction". It is a method of building the

framework of a house in which fewer but much heavier timbers are used instead
of the light or and more closely spaced joists, studs and rafters of more traditional
wood frame construction.
5.4 Comparison of Case studies
The technique of Additive Manufacturing has been implemented with

various new materials and printers in order to improvise the printing process that
reduces time consumption and cost as it requires few skilled labours for the
process.
57
6. INFERENCE
58
6.1 Conclusion
While additive manufacturing has been around in its main techniques
already for some 40+ years now, and cannot be considered an immature
technology, it is still undergoing a significant innovation process, often through
the hybridization of established base-techniques. Furthermore, in its use—
especially within the AEC field—its disruptive potential has yet to be exploited
and harvested outside the experimental research or pilot projects.
While waiting for ‘the ultimate’ technique, some limitations of additive

manufacturing can be dealt with through a series of smart strategies. One of these
consists in limiting its use to only the parts that need customization, so as to
overcome the slower production speed still often associated with AM: very often,
it is the nodes that can embed the nonstandard, varying part of the overall
geometries, thus allowing for the standardization of all other elements. Another
strategy consists in the use of such techniques as an indirect means to support
other techniques, as it is the case with 3D printed molds to help create freeform
concrete structures.
In any case, as it is already the case in some fields like engineering, also
within AEC it seems that now additive manufacturing techniques can slowly be
adopted not only for rapid prototyping of models and components, or as a mere
support technique to other more established techniques, but also to produce
functional elements within the final, built structures, or even fully functional
entire structures.
The adoption of AM techniques in AEC seems likely to bear some lasting

consequences going beyond the ‘technical’ aspects. In fact, similar to how the
invention of press systems changed the role of writers and their professional
position, or the recording of sounds created a wholly new environment for
musicians, so coVuld additive manufacturing produce a lasting impact on the
59
entire world of AEC, especially as regards the role of the architects and the
expressive potentialities opened to them
6.2 Solution to the Problems

The future of 3D printing technology is still dependent on current
challenging issues such as illegal manufacturing of firearms regulation. Initiatives
towards the realization of fully three-dimensional printed architecture are in
motion such as Contour Crafting and their vision of benefiting developing
countries and offering emergency solutions with the help of automated robotics.
However, the advantages of three dimensional printers such as complexity

at low cost are still not enough when facing the production speed of the
conventional rapid manufacturing industry. For the future of rapid manufacturing
through three dimensional printing, the following issues need to be addressed:
faster printing speed, mass simultaneous printing and mass customization.
60
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
61
 Nick Dunn / Digital Fabrication in Architecture / 2012 / 1st Edition /

http://www.arlisna.org/pubs/reviews/2012/11/dunn.pdf / US / Laurence
King Publishing Ltd.
 Correa D et al. 3D-printed wood: Programming hygroscopic material
transformations. 3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing. 2015;2(3):105-
117. DOI: 10.1089/3dp.2015.0022
 Hack N, Lauer WV. Mesh-mould: Robotically fabricated spatial meshes as
reinforced concrete formwork. Architectural Design. 2014;84:44-53. DOI:
10.1002/ad.175
 Öcel, C. and Yücel, K.T., 2013. Effect of cement content, fibers, chemical
admixtures and aggregate shape on rheological parameters of pumping
concrete. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 28, 1059–1074.
 Cnet.com, 2016b. Available from: http://www.cnet.com/news/ worlds-
first-3d-printed-apartment-building-constructed-inchina/ [Accessed June
2016].
 Cnet.com, 2016a. Available from: http://www.cnet.com/news/ dubai-
unveils-worlds-first-3d-printed-office-building/ [Accessed June 2016].
 Kwon,H.,2002.Experimentationandanalysisofcontourcrafting (cc) process
using uncured ceramic materials. Dissertation (partial fulfillment).
University of Southern California.
 Wu, P., Wang, J., and Wang, X., 2016. A critical review of the use of 3-D
printing in the construction industry. Automation in Construction, 68, 21–
31.
 Wolfs, R.J.M., Salet, T.A.M., and Hendriks, L.N., 2015. 3D printing of
sustainable concrete structures. Proceedings of the International
Association for Shell and Spatial Structures (IASS) Symposium 2015,
Amsterdam.
 Wolfs,2015.3Dprintingofconcretestructures.Graduationthesis. Eindhoven
University of Technology.
62
 Salet, T.A.M. and Wolfs, R.J.M., 2016. Potentials and challenges in 3D

Concrete Printing. 2nd International Conference on Progress in Additive
Manufacturing (Pro-AM 2016), May 16–19, Singapore.
 Chris Anderson – Makers : The New Industrial Revolution
 Abderrahim, M., et al., 2003. A mechatronic security system for
construction site. Journal of Automation in Construction, 14 (4), 460–466.
 Bos, F., et al., 2016. Additive manufacturing of concrete in construction:
potentials and challenges of 3D concrete printing. Virtual and Physical
Prototyping, 11 (3), 209–22
 Chua, C.K. and Leong, K.F., 2014. 3D printing and additive
manufacturing: principles and applications. 4th ed. Singapore: World
Scientific.
 Hwang, D., Khoshnevis, B., and Daniel, E., 2004. Concrete wall
fabrication by contour crafting. In: ISARC 2004 21st international
symposium on automation and robotics in construction. Jeju Island, South
Korea.
63

3D Printing Technology in Architecture 27092019

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OCTOBER 2019

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

Certified that this project report “FUTURISTIC TECHNOLOGY IN

Prof. Ar. R.SEETHA, M.Arch. Ar. L. MALARKODI, M.Arch.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

BALAJI M (Reg no. AC15UAR008) a bonafide student of the Department of

PLACE : HOSUR (BALAJI M)

I first thank lord almighty, whose graceful blessings enabled me to complete

I convey my heartfelt thanks to the college, especially to our Principal

I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to our beloved H.O.D, Prof.

I specially thank my Guide, Ar. L. MALARKODI, M .Arch. for her timely

I am grateful to my parents and my family members who offered great

1.1. PROBLEMATIC SCENARIO ............................................................................. 1

2. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF THE TECHNOLOGY....................... 5

2.1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 6

3.1 TWO-STOREY HOUSE IN CHINA, BY BEIJING-BASED HUA SHANG TENGDA. . 25

4. PROCESS INVOLVED IN 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY ................. 32

4.1 DESIGNING PROCESS ................................................................................... 33

5. COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS ...................................................................... 47

5.1 BASED ON THE TIME CONSUMPTION ............................................................ 48

6.1 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 59

4. PROCESS INVOLVED IN 3D PRINTING TECHNOLOGY

1.1. Problematic scenario

 Our current stage of exploration in 3D printing technology?

As an adult, with working knowledge of the physical environment and memories

3D printing can be nowadays considered a consolidated technology, at least in its

While 3D printing technology affect many industrial sectors, it also has a

The objectives are listed out as:

1. To explore the 3D printing technology through its history and evolution

The detail study of AMoC (Additive Manufacturing of Concrete) will be

The potentials of 3D printing technology in Architectural Field will be

1. The extent of the 3D printing technology and other

2. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF

2.1.1. Process of 3D Printing Technology

traditional machines, reaching the possibility to create shapes

2.2. History and Evolution

1984: Jean-Claude André (CNRS), Alain le Méhauté (CGE/Alcatel) and

UV-sensitive liquid resin, following a sequence of cross-sections of the object to

1987: Carl R. Deckard invented at UT-Austin the selective laser sintering

1989–1990: S. Scott Crump invented and patented the most popular 3D

1993: MIT developed what, strictly speaking, was considered 3D printing.

1999: Bioprinting techniques were successfully experimented at Wake

2008: Shapeways was launched in the Netherlands. It consists in an on-line

Figure 2. 1 3D printed bowl based on selective fusion

2.3.1. Selective fusion

The procedure of selective fusion is followed as:

1. A laser source or sun sends a laser beam to solidify the material

2.3.1.1. Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)

2.3.1.2. Stereolithography (SL)

2.3.2. Selective deposition

Selective Deposition method is a simple method of adding the material

The print head move in 3 dimensional directions printing several cross-sections,

2.3.2.1. Contour Crafting

2.3.2.2. Poly Jet Printing

It can print as well in multiple materials by using several print heads at

2.3.2.3. Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)

2.3.2.4. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

2.3.2.5 Anti-Gravity Object Modeling

2.4. Contour Crafting

The experimental technique—developed in 1998 by Prof. Behrokh

the extrusion technique, applied to the object ‘surfaces’, to a filler material

Similar to contour crafting, developed at Loughborough University in the United

2.4.1. Types of Machines in Contour Crafting