International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 157 (2021) 105159

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International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ibiod

Resistance of particleboards produced with ligno-cellulosic agro-industrial

wastes to fungi and termites
Fabricio Gomes Gonçalves *, Juarez Benigno Paes, Yonny Martinez Lopez,
Pedro Gutemberg de Alcântara Segundinho, Rafael Gonçalves Espósito de Oliveira,
Michelângelo Vargas Fassarella, Alice Soares Brito, Izabella Luzia Silva Chaves,
Rhagnya Sharon Ferreira Martins
Federal University of Espírito Santo, Department of Forest and Wood Science, Avenue Governador Lindemberg, 316, Center, 29550-000, Jerônimo Monteiro, Espírito
Santo, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study aimed to evaluate the resistance of medium density particleboard (MDP) made with ligno-cellulosic
Panel agro-industrial wastes to Brunneoporus malicola (≈Gleophyllum trabeum) and Trametes versicolor fungi and Cryp­
Biodeterioration totermes brevis and Nasutitermes corniger termites. The panels were produced by compression, with different
Macadamia nut carpel
proportions of eucalypt sawdust, macadamia nut carpel, papaya stalk and coffee husks (10%, 20% and 30% each
Papaya stalk
Coffee husk
one and the control - 100% eucalypt sawdust) and bonded with urea-formaldehyde (UF) and tannin-urea-
Fungi formaldehyde (TUF). The fungi and termite tests were performed in conformity the specific standards of wood
Termites and wood-based materials biological resistance. The resistance of each treatment was evaluated in terms of the
composite mass loss and mortality for termite. All treatments submitted to the attack of Brunneoporus malicola
and Tramites versicolor fungi were classified as moderately resistant or no resistant, no statistical difference.
Highlight for 30% macadamia nut carpel with less mass loss, 42.28% and 43.58% in the UF and TUF panels,
respectively. There were no statistical differences for mass loss and mortality between treatments and adhesives
to dry-wood termites; treatment with 10% and 30% macadamia nut carpel showed greater mass loss (0.681 g)
and mortality (56.50%), respectively. In general, all treatments showed low resistance to fungi and for dry-wood
termite attack good resistance, indicating these case biological properties of the panels. The panels produced did
not allow resistance to attack of Nasutitermes corniger termite.

1. Introduction (Terzi et al., 2018), in addition to adding value to them.

Currently, severals agro-industrial wastes are generated in large
quantities each year by productive activities such as rice husks (Melo
et al., 2015), wood sawdust (Tinti et al., 2018), walnut carpel macad­
amia (Martins et al., 2020). The more part of these wastes are not reused
due to a lack of environmental awareness or due to a lack of techno­
logical capacity to transform them into another useful product for so­
ciety. Environmental legislation is becoming increasingly stringent, with
the burning and exposure of waste to the environment. In this context,
particleboards may be a way of using these wastes and mitigating the
contamination of these ones, when used in the manufacture of panels
The particleboard emerged as an innovation in the production of
materials from wood, providing greater use of the log, facilitating
workability, and increasing the yield of the raw materials (Melo et al.,
2010), as the ligno-cellulosic agro-industrial wastes. In addition, it
originates a panel, with large dimensions and homogeneity in some
properties, in relation to the raw material (solid wood), as an allowed
the elimination of isotropic interferences from the wood and resistance
reducing factors such as knots, juvenile wood, and grain slope (Melo
et al., 2015). It also allowed the adaptation of the biological and
physical-mechanical properties of the panels by controlled parameters
of the production process, such as resin, particle geometry, and degree of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: fabricio.goncalves@ufes.br (F.G. Gonçalves), jbp2@uol.com.br (J.B. Paes), yohnkar@gmail.com (Y.M. Lopez), pedro.segundinho@ufes.br
(P.G.A. Segundinho), rafaeldeoliveira077@gmail.com (R.G.E. de Oliveira), mickeyvf@hotmail.com (M.V. Fassarella), alice.ifnmg@yahoo.com.br (A.S. Brito),
izabellachaves@yahoo.com (I.L.S. Chaves), rhagnya-sharon@hotmail.com (R.S.F. Martins).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2020.105159
Received 28 May 2020; Received in revised form 2 December 2020; Accepted 3 December 2020
Available online 9 December 2020
0964-8305/© 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
F.G. Gonçalves et al.
densification (Gonçalves et al., 2017).
To meet the demand for wood panels, it is necessary to not only use
the existing silvicultural matrix but also seek alternatives for the use of
other raw materials available (Tascioglu et al., 2013). In this context,
agricultural crop residues, wood waste from sawmills, as sawdust and
wood shavings, and something may represent the new alternatives for
adhesive preparation for the manufacture of panels (Tiburtino et al.,
2015).
However, the effects of xylophagous agents attracted to wood can
deteriorate the structure of the particleboard. Wood in natural condi­
tions can suffer structural damage and be attacked by insects and others
xylophagous agents. Among the biological agents that affect wood are
termites and fungi (Maistrello, 2018). These insects feed on cellulose
found abundantly in the wood. They are responsible for the attack and
destruction of the anatomical structure of wood used in the manufacture
of particleboard. The problems with termites have been accentuated in
recent years in the civil construction and furniture industries (Tinti
et al., 2018). Nevertheless, often, because of difficulties in gathering
information, the costs caused are not accounted for.
According to Yingprasert et al. (2015), termite and fungi damage has
been most commonly thought of in terms of weakening wood, making
infested areas prone to collapse. This is because these xylophagous or­
ganisms have the ability to remove the components of the cell wall
(lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose) present in organic materials,
compromising its natural structure (Oliveira et al., 2017b). For example,
brown rot mainly attacks cellulose and hemicellulose while white rot
feed on both the polysaccharides and lignin. Particleboard damage is
important in the increasing forest industry of particleboard production
(Köse et al., 2011).
These panels (plywood, medium density particleboard, and medium
density fiberboard) shown as one of the promising alternatives to eval­
uate resistance to xylophagous agents. Importantly then, the suscepti­
bility to attack by these agents depends on the quality of the panel. This
quality is influenced by the treatment standards used in the technolog­
ical process, among them the quality of the wood used (characteristics as
density, species, acidity, and extracts), inputs (adhesives and additives)
and as to the characteristics of the process (geometry, size, particle
distribution, and moisture content) (Indrayani et al., 2014; Nascimento
et al., 2015).
There is a range of work carried out with decaying fungi, compared
to those performed with termites, because the fungi are the main wood-
damaging agents when wooden products are in contact with the soil.
Whereas, for termites, they are less expressive amount of work, despite
the damage caused in wood and other materials used outside contact
with soil and protected from moisture (Paes et al., 2015a,b). In this
respect, further studies with these degrading agents are justified, since
they are also highly degrading of wood and its reconstituted panels
(Tascioglu et al., 2013).
Based on the stated presupposes, this work has verified the possi­
bility of production of reconstituted panels from non-traditional raw
material (macadamia nut carpel, papaya stalk, and coffee husks), glued
with urea-formaldehyde and tannin-urea-formaldehyde adhesives, and
their behavior in the face of deteriorating biological agents. This may
result in improving industrial efficiency, for the supply of new raw
materials and reducing problems to the environment. Thus, this study
aimed to evaluate the resistance of medium density particleboard (MDP)
made with ligno-cellulosic agro-industrial wastes to Brunneoporus mali­
cola (≈Gleophyllum trabeum) e Trametes versicolor fungi and Cryptotermes
brevis and Nasutitermes corniger termites.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Raw material and origin of panels
The experiment consisted of using eucalypt wood and ligno-
cellulosic agro-industrial wastes. The wood sawdust was obtained
2
International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 157 (2021) 105159
from logs of seven years old Eucalyptus urophylla × Eucalyptus grandis,
from a plantation located in Alegre municipality, State of Espírito Santo,
Brazil. The agro-industrial wastes (Fig. 1) were collected from papaya
farm production (Carica papaya) and macadamia (Macadamia integ­
rifolia) located near São Mateus municipality, State of Espírito Santo;
Brazil. The coffee husks (endocarp), from an arabica coffee (Coffea
arabica) production at Dores do Rio Preto municipality, State of Espírito
Santo, Brazil.
Eucalypt wood sawdust was obtained from log processing plants. All
raw materials were air-dried until achieving the equilibrium moisture
content. Then, their size was reduced to particles in a hammer mill
(Tigre, A4, São Paulo, Brazil) and classified by a knitted sifted of 4.0 mm
(Solocap, Mod G220V–50H, Belo Horizonte, Brazil), to obtain the most
appropriate particles to produce the particleboard, using only the ones
that were retained at a knitted sieve of 2.0 mm. Thereafter, the particles
were oven-dried (Solab, SL-102/480, Piracicaba, Brazil) the tempera­
ture of 80 ± 2 ◦ C until 5% moisture content and stored in bags.
To produce particleboards commercial pure urea-formaldehyde ad­
hesive was used (density: 1.28 g cm− 3; pH 8.1; viscosity: 0.60 Pa s; solids
content: 64.8%; gel time: 64s) with the mixture (10%) of commercial
tannic extract from Acacia mearnsii at 50% (density: 1.40 g cm− 3, pH:
5.0, viscosity: 2.07 Pa s, solids content: 78.0%, gel time: 91s). The
lignocellulosic particles were weighed to quantify the material needed
and the adhesive to be applied, according to each treatment.
To determine the used particle weight and determine the particle­
board density in each proportion, aiming at a compaction rate of 1.3, the
bulk density of each material. The nominal apparent density of the
panels equal 700 kg m− 3. The particleboard was pressed in a hydraulic
press (Solab, SL12, Piracicaba, Brazil) of horizontal flat plates with
electric heating, thus forming the particleboards. Three particleboards
were produced per treatment. The circle of pressing followed the
following condition: press time, 10 min; pressing temperature, 160 ◦ C
and pressure of 3.92 MPa (Martins, 2016). The physical and mechanical
properties in the panels can be consulted in Martins (2016). Table 1
shows the treatments utilized in this research.
2.2. Evaluation of the biological assay
In the resistance test to biodeterioration, Brunneoporus malicola
(Pers.) Murr. (≈Gleophyllum trabeum) (Mad 698) and Trametes versicolor
(L., Fr.) Quél. (Mad 697) fungi were used, based on American Wood
Protection Association – AWPA E− 10 (2016a) and AWPA E− 30
(2016b). Thus, six specimens with 2.5 cm × 2.5 cm × 1.27 cm (length ×
width × panel thickness) were randomly selected per treatment (two per
panel) and dried in an oven (Solab, SL100/100, Piracicaba, Brazil) at 50
± 2 ◦ C until they reached constant mass.
The test was set up in 600 mL culture bottles, fulfilled with 300 g of
soil with pH 6.74 and 120 mL of distilled water were added, according to
the water-holding capacity – WHC, 26.71%, and moisture content of the
soil (AWPA, 2016a). In each culture bottle with the moistened soil, were
added two wooden feeders of Pinus taeda, and sterilized at 121 ◦ C ± 2 ◦ C,
for 30 min in an autoclave (Phoenix, MB100/75, Araraquiara, Brazil).
After cooling the bottles, the fungi were placed in contact with the
feeders. After 30 days of inoculation, two specimens of panels with
different adhesives were weighed and placed inside the bottles.
The samples were subjected to fungi attack in a climatized envi­
ronment (27 ± 2 ◦ C and 65 ± 5% relative humidity) for 12 weeks.
Thereafter, they were dried under the same conditions before the test
was carried out, clean and reweighed. The resistance to deterioration by
fungi was quantified in terms of mass loss (AWPA, 2016b) and assessed
qualitatively according to the resistance classes, namely: 0–10%: Highly
resistant – HR, 11–24%: Resistant – R, 25–44%: Moderately resistant –
MR, 45% or above: Slightly resistant or nonresistant – NR.
F.G. Gonçalves et al. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 157 (2021) 105159

Fig. 1. Agro-industrial ligno-cellulosic wastes used. A) papaya stalk; B) macadamia nut carpel; C) coffee husks; D) eucalypt sawdust. Source: The authors.

described by Paes et al. (2006; 2007; 2015a,b), Lopes et al. (2017) and
Table 1 Brocco et al. (2020). The test was maintained in the same environmental
Particleboard composition (treatments), adhesives and apparent density of the
conditions as the test with Cryptotermes brevis termite and in the same
particleboards used in the research.
time interval. The panel specimens were placed on a polyethylene
Treatments Particleboard composition (%) Apparent plastic grid and arranged inside a 250 L capacity fiber-cement box,
density (kg
m− 3)
containing a layer of sand (approximately 10 cm), kept constantly moist
as cited by Brocco et al. (2020). The panels resistance was evaluated of
Papaya Macadamia Coffee Eucalypt UFa TUF
similar form as cited by Brocco et al. (2020), as visual rating score of
stalk nut carpel husks sawdust
AWPA E1 (2016c), and mass loss of AWPA (2016b).
T1 10 – – 90 663 698
T2 – 10 – 657 693
T3 10 693 644
– –
2.4. Statistical analysis and evaluation of results
T4 20 – – 80 640 641
T5 – 20 – 658 663
T6 – – 20 703 671 The experimental part with fungi was evaluated based on the
T7 30 – – 70 597 606 factorial arrangement of treatments in a completely randomized design,
T8 – 30 – 618 628 with adhesive (two levels - urea-formaldehyde (UF) and tannin-urea-
T9 30 658 645
formaldehyde (TUF), proportion of waste (ten levels), as can be saw in
– –

T10 – – – 100 674 668
Control
a
UF: urea-formaldehyde and TUF: tannin-urea-formaldheyde. Source: Mar­
tins et al. (2020).
2.3. Termites test
For the dry-wood termites (Cryptotermes brevis Walker, Isoptera:
Kalotermitidae), the procedure of “Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnológicas
do Estado de São Paulo/Divisão de Madeira” (Institute of Technological
Research of the State of São Paulo/Division of Timber) - IPT/DIMAD D-2
(IPT, 1980) was used with modified procedure for visual rating score
and the mass loss was added in the evaluation of the damage caused by
termites. This methodology is similar to that described by Maisttrello
(2018). The termites were carefully collected from attacked pieces of
wood and furniture, collected in the municipality of Jerônimo Monteiro,
State of Espírito Santo, Brazil.
In this test, five replicates per treatment (Table 1) and a sample of
pine as control were used. The samples were grouped two by two with
adhesive tape, forming a set. A glass sleeve container with a diameter of
35 mm and 40 mm of high was fixed with paraffin in each set. In this
container, 39 worker termites and one soldier termite were introduced.
Each set was arranged in a Petri dish to prevent termites from escaping.
The test was performed in an acclimatized environment (27 ± 2 ◦ C and
65 ± 5% of relative humidity) for 45 days.
After the test, the specimens were cleaned, oven-dried at 50 ± 2 ◦ C
and the final mass determined after 72 h. The mass loss caused by ter­
mites was considered as superficial damage (SD - 0 to 0.2 g); superficial
to moderate damage (SMD - > 0.2–0.3 g); advanced to deep damage
(ADD - > 0.3–0.4 g); none to moderate damage (NMD - > 0.4 g). Termite
percentage mortality was also obtained, thus not attributing grades to
damage in the specimens.
To evaluate the biological resistance of the panels to the Nasutitermes
corniger Motsch. (Blattodea: Isoptera: Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae)
termite, a colony was collected in the municipality of Jerônimo Mon­
teiro, State of Espírito Santo, Brazil. The colony was submitted a
multiple-choice feeding test was set up, according to the methodology
Table 1. The average was evaluated (Scott-Knott, p < 0.05) and the
comparison between each treatment with the control (100% eucalypt
sawdust glued with UF) was performed with the Dunnet test (p < 0.05).
The termites test was evaluated based on the factorial experiment in
randomized blocks design, in which the effects of the type of adhesive
(two levels) and the proportion of raw material (nine levels plus the
control) (F < 0.05). For variance analyses, mass loss (fungi) percentage
values were transformed into arcsin [square root (mass loss/100)] ac­
cording to what is recommended by Steel and Torrie (1980). Scott-Knott
test was used for the evaluation of assays for the significant factors for
the F test (p < 0.05). The date presented homogeneous values of vari­
ance by the Cochran and Bartlett test (p < 0.05), enabling the advance of
statistical tests.
3. Results
3.1. Fungi assay
The specimens underwent a process of removing excess mycelium
under its surface. Activity that required care not to remove fragments
from the decomposing panel and compromise the resistance results.
After surface cleaning, the specimens were returned to the oven at 50 ±
2 ◦ C until their mass stabilized.
The results showed that the panels attacked by the Tramites versicolor
fungi showed the highest values of mass loss, with averages above 41%.
All treatments submitted to the attack of this fungi were classified as
moderate and not very resistant (Fig. 2A and B). However, only two
agricultural components (T8 and T10), Table 1, were classified as
moderately resistant to TUF adhesive (Fig. 2B) in comparation with UF
(Fig. 2A), in which five compositions (T1; 3; 8–10) were in this class.
The Brunneoporus malicola fungi promoted lower values of mass loss
with averages below 27%, classifying as highly resistant (T1; 4; 5; 7; 8),
resistant (T2; 6) and moderately resistant (T9), depending on the pro­
portion of agro-industrial wastes and adhesive studied (Table 2). Thus,
all treatments containing papaya stalk were classified as HR, indepen­
dent adhesive used. The increase in the proportion of macadamia nut
carpel improved the performance of the panels, having gone from R (T2)

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F.G. Gonçalves et al. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 157 (2021) 105159

Fig. 2. Average percentage of mass loss of the panels with different treatments attacked by the Tramites versicolor fungus. (A) Urea-formaldehyde; (B) Tannin-urea-
formaldehyde; MR- Moderately resistant; NR- Nonresistant, as AWPA (2016b).

mechanical resistance of the panels, or even the chemical components

Table 2
present in the agro-industrial wastes that were sufficient for the elimi­
Average percentage of mass loss and class of resistance of the panels (treatments)
nation of the colony. Similar results were found by Gonçalves et al.
attacked by the Brunneoporus malicola fungus for the adhesives used.
(2014) and Brocco et al. (2020), having the termites consumed all
Treatments Mass loss (%)
specimens of the panels made with Acacia mangium wood or totally some
UFb Class of TUF Class of samples of wood, treated with extractives from teak, respectively.
resistance resistancee

1 10.31 cAns HR 10.39 cAns HRd 4. Discussion

2 11.89 cBns R 17.52 R
bAns
3 13.40 cBns R 23.74 aA* MR
4.1. Tramites versicolor fungi test
4 6.35 dAns HR 9.26 cA* HR
5 8.66 dAns HR 7.18 cA* HR There was no statistical difference between all treatments (F > 0.05)
6 15.65 R 17.36 R for degradation by the Tramites versicolor fungi. This fungi is aggressive
bAns bAns
and capable of degrading all agro-industrial components used in the
7 8.13 dAns HR 8.54 cA* HR
8 9.51 dAns HR 7.84 cA* HR production of the panels, it was noted that all treatments show mass loss
9 22.96 aA* MR 26.91 aA* MR above 41%, that is, they are among the moderately resistant (25–44%)
10 (TC)a 10.67 Bc HRd 15.93 A R
or nonresistance (≥45%) classes, as AWPA (2016b).
The adhesives did not inhibit the attack of Tramites versicolor (Scott-
ns
Doesn’t differs statistically (Dunnet, p > 0.05) with control treatment (100% Knott, p > 0.05), the same occurred when compared to the increase in
eucalypt sawdust).
a the proportions of agro-industrial waste in the panels (F ≥ 0.05), even
TC: Control treatment.
b with higher mass loss values. However, the resistance to Tramites versi­
UF: Urea-formaldehyde, TUF: Tannin-urea-formaldehyde.
c
Means followed by the same lowercase letter on the column or the same
color fungi was practically unchanged when only 10% of the waste was
uppercase letter on the line do not differ (Scott-Knott, p > 0.05). added when compared to the panels 100% eucalypt sawdust. Only the
d
HR: Highly resistant, R: Resistant and MR: Moderately resistant. *It differs panels made with 20% and 30% papaya stalk show the highest values of
statistically (Dunnet, p ≤ 0.05). mass loss (Fig. 2 A, B).
e
Classification as AWPA (2016b). The increase of 10%, 20%, and 30% of macadamia nut carpel and
coffee husk waste in the panels showed values very close to those
to HR (T5 and T8). However, the incorporation of coffee husks, in compared with 100% eucalypt sawdust, not resulting in greater mass
general, contributed to the deterioration of the panels when compared losses by the attack of Tramites versicolor fungi.
to the control (Table 2). For the resistance analyses of panels produced with eucalypt sawdust
waste bonded with UF and TUF to the Tramites versicolor fungi, Tinti
et al. (2018) concluded that was no significant difference between the
3.2. No-choice test for dry-wood and multiple-feeding choice test for
values of mass loss. The panels glued with tannin-based adhesives
arboreal termite
showed greater loss of mass, similar to those found in this study. This
may have occurred, since the tannic extract contains, in addition to
The statistical analysis performed did not find any difference be­
tannins, non-tannic substances, such as simple sugars, which may have
tween treatments (raw material vs. adhesive) (F > 0.05) in relation to
contributed to the development and attack of fungi on the panels.
the loss of mass and mortality in the panels in contact with Cryptotermes
brevis. There was also no statistical difference (Dunnet, p > 0.05) be­
tween panels manufactured with waste and the control treatment with 4.2. Brunneoporus malicola (≈Gleophyllum trabeum) fungi test
100% eucalypt sawdust (Table 3).
For Nasutitermis corniger termite assay, the specimens had been The control treatment (100% eucalypt sawdust) with TUF showed
completely consumed in the time interval of test (45 days), regardless of superior mass loss then UF when subjected to the attack of the Brun­
the adhesive or lignocellulosic waste used. This may have occurred as a neoporus malicola fungi being classified as a resistant material (Tables 2
result of a large number of individuals present in the colony, the low and 3). Although Paes et al. (2013) to quote that tannins may be acting

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F.G. Gonçalves et al. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 157 (2021) 105159

Table 3
Average of mass loss, mortality and classification of the panels (treatments) attacked by Cryptotermes brevis termite for the adhesives used.
Treatments Mass loss (g) Mortality (%) Classification*
b,ns ns b,ns ns
UF TUF Mean UF TUF Mean UF TUF

1 0.294# 0.143# 0.219 55.50# 50.50# 53.00 SMD SD

2 0.144 1.219 0.681 47.00 57.00 52.00 SD ADD
3 0.453 0.360 0.406 52.50 46.00 49.25 ADD NMD
4 0.148 0.243 0.195 48.50 58.00 53.25 SD SMD
5 0.394 0.199 0.297 47.50 51.50 49.50 NMD SD
6 0.153 0.242 0.197 44.50 53.00 48.75 SD SMD
7 0.212 0.202 0.207 45.00 53.50 49.25 SMD SMD
8 0.402 0.302 0.352 50.00 63.00 56.50 ADD NMD
9 0.592 0.153 0.373 52.50 50.00 51.25 ADD SD

10 (TC)a 0.257 0.208 – 58.50 49.50 – SMD SMD

Mean 0.310 0.341 0.325 49.22 53.61 51.42 NMD NMD

# ns
: No-significant (Dunnet, p > 0.05) with control treatment (100% eucalypt sawdust); *Classification for mass loss, SD: Surpecifial damage; SMD: surpeficial to
moderate damage; ADD: advanced to deep damage; NMD: none to moderate damage.
a
TC: Control treatment.
b
UF: Urea-formaldehyde; TUF: Tannin-urea-formaldehyde.

to denature proteins, inhibiting enzymes associated with fungi, pre­
venting their development. This was not observed for raw material
proportions for both fungi tested. This may have occurred by the
collaboration, in the deterioration, provided by non-tonic substances
present in the TUF used.
The chemical composition of the raw materials associated with both
adhesives contributed to inhibit the development of Brunneoporus
malicola, since the extracts may act as a fungicide (Oliveira et al., 2017a,
b), with emphasis on the panels made with papaya stalk. The increase in
the proportions (10, 20, and 30%) of papaya stalk and macadamia nut
carpel in the panels didn’t change the resistance of the same to Brun­
neoporus malicola, showing no statistical difference (Dunnet, p > 0.05) in
relation to the control treatment, being the material (in all cases) clas­
sified as highly resistant.
Panels composed of coffee husk showed higher values of mass loss for
both adhesives, even with high extractive values and lignin. As the
proportion (10, 20, and 30%) of this waste increased, there was a loss of
resistance. Possibly, due to the gradual increase in the amount of lignin
demonstrating that the increase in this material led to greater degra­
dation by Brunneoporus malicola.
The average values of mass loss, obtained for panels with 100%
eucalypt particles, were similar to those obtained by Melo et al. (2010),
for panels made with Eucalyptus grandis, in accelerated rot test in the
laboratory, with a mass loss of 33.90% and 27.50% for the Tramites
versicolor and Brunneoporus malicola fungi, respectively. It was observed
that the mass loss values for Tramites versicolor in the present study were
higher (Bhoru and Tripathi, 2016). The chemical composition of wood
sawdust may have contributed to this result (Nilsson et al., 2009). Since
higher proportions of phenolic extractives and ash (mainly silicates –
SiO2) contribute to an improvement in the strength of the raw material
used in the production of panels.
The increase in the proportion of coffee husk waste induced the
attack of the Brunneoporus malicola fungi. This waste represents 28%–
39% of the coffee fruit yield. It’s a fibrous material composed of average
values of 36% cellulose and 25% hemicellulose. These may be a possible
explanation for the attack of the fungi with greater mass loss, regardless
of adhesive, with higher values in the presence of tannin (Ferreira et al.,
2014). Another factor to be considered is the density of the raw material,
which contributes to the fungus access to the food source. This associ­
ated with the quantity of simple sugar presents in coffee husk, provide a
greater loss of mass of the panel.
Panels produced with 10%, 20%, and 30% papaya stalk and panels
with 20% and 30% macadamia nut carpel had less mass loss than 100%
eucalypt sawdust panels when subjected to the attack of Brunneoporus
malicola fungus. This may be associated with the compaction ratio of the
panels, provided by the lower density raw material, which made it
difficult to absorb water and translease the fungus enzymes in the sub­
strate, hindering its deterioration.
The high content of lignin in the panels manufactured with macad­
amia nut carpel waste may explain the high resistance to the fungi in
question. The Brunneoporus malicola fungi degrade preferentially poly­
saccharides of wood and partially oxidizes the lignin (Louençon et al.,
2016). The quality of the extracts present in the papaya stalk has a po­
tential interest in studies in order to understand this high resistance.
4.3. Dry-wood termite (Cryptotermes brevis) test
The addition of coffee husk did not influence the termite mortality,
being below the total mean. Mortality stands out at 51.25% for the
highest proportion of macadamia nut carpel (30%). In this waste, second
higher mortality was expected, in view of the higher density of the
panels and the second higher percentage of extracts, as terpenoids,
quinones and technoquinones (Oliveira et al., 2017a,b). These com­
pounds can act on the palatability of the material or influence the
symbiont organisms existing in the digestive tract of termite, making it
difficult to consume by it. On the other hand, the amount of ash (mineral
compounds, mainly SiO2), present in the raw materials used in the
production of panels, can cause damage to the jaws of insects (termites)
and hinder their access to the food source.
The greater amount of ash observed for the papaya stalk waste may
have contributed to the second-highest average mortality in the panels
(51.83%), indicating a certain resistance of this material in the attack of
termite, with emphasis on the addition of 20%. This may have caused
greater wear on the termite mandible (Paes et al., 2013; Tiburtino et al.,
2015; Brito et al., 2020), difficult it to feed. Despite the higher per­
centage of extractives present in this waste, it may not have enough toxic
elements to increase mortality (Gonçalves et al., 2013). In general,
termite mortality occurred in those panels with the highest absolute ash
values (Gonçalves et al., 2013). In addition, can be highlighted that
termites have difficulties digesting material, which is not normally part
of their diet (Bignell et al., 2011; Brito et al., 2020).
Mortality above the general mean for termite attack for two com­
positions with macadamia nut carpel waste (10% and 30%) may be
related to the presence of tannins and flavonoids (Indrayani et al., 2015)
and to the groups belonging to lignin that act as antioxidants (Ribeiro
et al., 2014). Termite mortality was lowest than 63%. Results of labo­
ratory termite feeding suggest that particleboard with UF containing at
least 30% macadamia nut carpel provided significant protection against
the dry-wood C. brevis termite.
The symbiotic associations of termites with microorganisms
comprise different levels of interaction, being the majority of located in
the intestinal tract, attached to the gut epithelium or associated with the

5
F.G. Gonçalves et al.
intestinal protozoa. It can also be inferred that the gut microbiota of
termites is directly or indirectly involved in the digestion of lignocel­
lulose or has other nutritional implications (Brune, 2013). The damage
caused by termites is related with the amount of cellulosic elements
available to them, which in turn are linked by a community of protozoa
and bacteria present in your specialized intestines that are needed to
digest cellulose (Tokuda et al., 1997; Ali et al., 2019), with a nutri­
tionally specialized selectivity (Bignell et al., 2011). In our research,
access to these substances was abundant especially in panels made with
30% macadamia nut carpel and coffee husks.
5. Conclusions
UF provided greater resistance to decay fungi than TUF; however,
the panels did not offer resistance to termites, mainly to Nasutitermes
corniger. Nevertheless, the use of waste adds value and provides op­
portunities for use with environmental benefits, by reducing disposal in
inappropriate places. This may improves water resources and reduction
of pathogenic disease transmitters (mosquitoes, rodents and other ani­
mals that may serve as deposits of viruses).
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Foundation for Support Research
and Innovation of Espírito Santo (FAPES), (Proc. 54.426.006/11) and
National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq),
(Proc. 441.461/2014-0 and Proc. 402710/2016-9).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2020.105159.
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