CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

The transformed equation with its associated boundary conditions cannot be

solved analytically, and thus an alternative solution method is necessary. The
problem was first solved by Blasius in 1908 using a power series expansion
approach, and this original solution is known as the Blasius solution. However,
later problem is solved more accurately using numerical approaches by
Howrath (1938). The result obtained by Howrath is given in tabular form.
The results obtainedby this simplified analysis are in
excellent agreement with experimental results.
 Boundary Layer Thickness:
 Skin Friction Coefficient :
The skin friction coefficient ‘Cf ’ is defined as the ratio of shear stress at the
plate to the dynamic head caused by free stream velocity.
The local skin friction coefficient at any value of x is

Now,

The average value of skin friction coefficient can be obtained by

Important Correlations:
The dimensionless slope of the temperature profile for other value of Prandtl
number at the surface where h = 0:

Pholhausen has suggested that the following relation in general may be

assumed between the thermal and hydrodynamic boundary layer:
𝛿𝑡ℎ 1
−3
= 𝑃𝑟
𝛿
The approximate solution of energy equation resulted following correlation
between the thermal and hydrodynamic boundary layer when heating of the
plate commences at a distance xo from the leading edge of the plate:
Heat Transfer Coefficient :
Once the temperature distribution is known, we can find the local heat
transfer coefficient as follows:

Now, the average heat transfer coefficient is :

Analogy Between Momentum & Energy Transfer
The ratio of heat flux to shear stress in laminar flow is given by

(1)

Now for Pr = 1

(2)

Now with and

Analogy Between Momentum & Energy Transfer (cont.)
When Pr ≠ 1,

We know that,

(1)
Also,

Now, dividing above equation by

(2)
Comparing Eq.(1) and (2)

The above correlation is true for Prandtl Number in the range 0.6 < Pr < 60.
Turbulent Flow over Flat Plate :
 Turbulent flow is characterized by random and rapid fluctuations of
group of fluid particles throughout the boundary layer called eddies.
 In laminar flow, heat and momentum are transferred across streamlines
only by molecular diffusion and cross flow is very small.
 In turbulent flow, the transverse motion of
eddies transport momentum and heat to
other regions of flow before they mix with
the rest of the fluid and lose their identity.
 Qualitatively, the exchange mechanism in
turbulent flow can be pictured as a
magnification of the molecular exchange
in laminar flow.
 For turbulent flows, boundary layer
development is influenced by random
fluctuations in the fluid and not by
molecular diffusion
 Velocity & Temperature profiles are nearly uniform in the core region,
but very steep in the thin layer adjacent to the wall.
Turbulent Flow over Flat Plate (cont.) :
 The rate of heat and momentum transfer in turbulent flow and the
associated friction and heat transfer coefficients are many times larger
than that in laminar flow.
 Difficult to solve turbulent flow problem analytically.
 The best approach to calculate heat transfer coefficient in turbulent flow
problem is by laboratory experiments and by studying the analogy
between heat and momentum transfer.
 In the study of turbulent flow over bodies, the local drag coefficient Cfx
and the thickness of boundary layer (x) are quantities of practical
interest.
 However, the drag coefficient can not be determined by purely
theoretical means.
 Schlichting proposed following correlation for local drag coefficient for
turbulent flow over a flat plate based on the experimental data.
(1)
 At higher Reynolds numbers, the following correlation is recommended
by Schultz – Grunow
(2)
Heat Transfer parameters for Turbulent Flow :
With the use of Colburn analogy, the heat transfer parameters for turbulent
flow may be derived. Now,

(1)

The average value of heat transfer coefficient is given by,

Heat Transfer parameters from Flat Plate for Combined Laminar &
Turbulent Flow :

(Laminar) (Turbulent)

Assuming that the transition occurs at critical Reynolds number

we get
Internal Flow:
The development of boundary layer thickness for pipe flow proceeds in a
fashion similar to that flow along a flat plate

 The region from the tube inlet to the point at which the boundary layer
merges at the center line is called the hydrodynamic entrance region,
and the length of this region is called the hydrodynamic entry length.
 The region beyond the entrance region in which the velocity profile is
fully developed and remains unchanged is called the hydrodynamically
fully developed region.
 The velocity profile in the fully developed region is parabolic in laminar
flow and somewhat flatter in turbulent flow due to eddy motion in radial
direction.
 The development thermal boundary layer when a fluid at a uniform
temperature enters a circular tube whose surface is maintained at a
different temperature is shown in above Figure.
 The region of flow over which the thermal boundary layer develops and
reaches the tube center is called the thermal entrance region, and the
length of this region is called the thermal entry length.
 The region beyond the thermal entrance region in which the
dimensionless temperature profile expressed as (Ts – T)/(Ts – Tm) remains
unchanged is called the thermally fully developed region.
The Mean Velocity :
The mean velocity is defined such that when multiplied by the fluid density
and the cross-sectional area of the tube, it provides the rate of mass flow
through tube.
(1)
Now, the mass flow rate can also be expressed as the integral
of the mass flux (ru) over the cross section,
(2)
Thus, for incompressible flow in circular tube

(3)

Thus, the above expression may be used to determine um at any axial location
from the knowledge of velocity profile at that region.
The mean velocity in actual heating and cooling applications may change
somewhat because of the changes in density with temperature. But, in
practice, we evaluate the fluid properties at some average temperature and
treat them as constants. The convenience in working with constant properties
usually more than justifies the slight loss in accuracy.
Velocity Profile in the Laminar Fully Developed Tube Flow :
Let us consider the steady laminar flow of an incompressible fluid with
constant properties in the fully developed region of a straight circular tube.
Now, consider a ring-shaped differential volume element of radius r, thickness
dr, and length dx oriented coaxially with the tube, as shown in Figure.
The pressure force acting on a submerged plane surface is the product of the
pressure at the centroid of the surface and the surface area.

For fully developed flow, we have,

A force balance on the volume element in the flow direction give

(1)
(2)
With, y = (r0 – r) the viscosity equation reduces to

Putting above value in Eq.(2), we get, (3)

Now, integrating Eq.(3) twice with respect to r,
(4)
The boundary conditions to find out integration constants are,

Putting the value of constants in Eq. (4) we get, (5)

Hence the profile of velocity is parabolic for fully developed flow

Putting value of Eq. (5) in Equation for mean velocity and integrating we get
(6)

Putting value of Eq. (6) in Eq.(5) we get (7)

The Mean Temperature :
 When a fluid is heated or cooled as it flows through a tube, the
temperature of the fluid at any cross section changes from Ts at the
surface of the wall to some maximum (or minimum in the case of heating)
at the tube center.
We know that rate of heat transfer when a fluid is flowing through a tube
is given by,

In the above equation it is assumed that the

temperature was uniform across the inlet &
outlet cross section.

In order to find out the actual rate of heat

transfer when convection heat transfer occur
let us define a term i.e. m cpTm which represent
the true rate of heat transfer across the cross
section.
 This true rate of heat transfer may be obtained by integrating mass flux
and the thermal energy per unit mass over the cross section as follows,

For flow in circular tube with constant r and cp , and using the expression of
mean velocity, the above equation reduces to,
Constant Surface Heat Flux :
In the case of , the rate of heat
transfer can also be expressed as
(1)
Then the mean fluid temperature at the tube exit
becomes
(2)

The surface temperature in case of constant

surface heat flux is given by
(3)
In the fully developed region, the surface
temperature Ts will also increase linearly in the
flow direction since h is constant and thus (Ts – Tm)
is constant.
Now let us consider the energy interaction for a
differential control volume in the tube.

(4)
Since both h and qs are constant, differentiation of Eq.(3) will result in
(5)

We know that the dimensionless temperature profile remains unchanged in

the fully developed region , thus
(since Ts –Tm
(6)
is constant)

Combining Eq.(4), (5) & (6), we get

Thus, we conclude that in fully developed

flow in a tube subjected to constant surface
heat flux, the temperature gradient is
independent of x and thus the shape of the
temperature profile does not change along
the tube
Constant Surface Temperature :
From Newton’s law of cooling, the rate of heat
transfer to or from a fluid flowing in a tube can be
expressed as
(1)
where h is the average convection heat transfer
coefficient, As is the heat transfer surface area (it is
equal to DL for a circular pipe of length L), and
Tave is some appropriate average temperature
difference between the fluid and the surface.
Below we discuss two suitable ways of expressing
Tave.
In the constant surface temperature (Ts = constant) case, Tave can be
expressed approximately by the arithmetic mean temperature difference Tam
as
(2)

where Tb = (Ti+Te)/2 is the bulk mean fluid temperature, which is the

arithmetic average of the mean fluid temperatures at the inlet and the exit of
the tube.
 is given
as
(3)

(4)

(5)
From Eq. (5) we have

Now, we know that,

where,
Temperature Distribution in the Laminar Fully Developed
Tube Flow :
Let us consider the steady laminar flow of an incompressible fluid with
constant properties in the fully developed region of a straight circular tube.
Now, consider a ring-shaped differential volume element of radius r, thickness
dr, and length dx oriented coaxially with the tube, as shown in Figure.

Taking energy transferred by mass in the x-direction, and by conduction in

the r-direction (heat conduction in the x-direction is assumed to be
negligible), the steady-flow energy balance for a cylindrical shell element
can be expressed as
(1)
 (2)

Now, the differential mass flow rate in the axial direction is =

the radial heat transfer rate is =

Putting above values in Eq.(2) we get, (3)

This implies that the rate of net energy transfer to the control volume by
mass flow is equal to the net rate of heat conduction in the radial
direction.
Constant Surface Heat Flux :
Now, substituting the expression for velocity profile i.e. and
condition for constant surface heat flux i.e. in Eq.(3) we get

(4)

Where (2um/)(dTm/dx) is a constant. Separating variables and integrating

twice, we obtain an expression for the radial temperature distribution.
 (5)

The constant of integration may be evaluated by applying following boundary

conditions :

Thus, and

Putting value of above constants in Eq.(5), the temperature profile for the
fully developed region with constant surface heat flux is of the form :

(6)
Now substituting the expression for velocity profile and temperature profile
for the fully developed region in the expression for mean temperature and
carrying out integration, we get
(7)

Now substituting and in Eq.(7)

(8)
We know that, (9)

Thus, from Eq.(8) & (9) we get

Therefore, for fully developed laminar flow in a circular tube subjected to

constant surface heat flux, the Nusselt number is a constant.
There is no dependence on the Reynolds or the Prandtl numbers.
Constant Surface Temperature :
A similar analysis can be performed for fully developed laminar flow in a
circular tube for the case of constant surface temperature Ts. The solution
procedure in this case is more complex as it requires iterations, but the
Nusselt number relation obtained is equally simple,

The thermal conductivity k for use in the Nu relations above is evaluated at

the bulk mean fluid temperature, which is the arithmetic average of the
mean fluid temperatures at the inlet and the exit of the tube. For laminar
flow, the effect of surface roughness on the friction factor and the heat
transfer coefficient is negligible.
The hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths are approximately given as
Physical Significance of the Dimensionless Parameters :
Reynolds Number :
It is the ratio of inertia force to viscous force in the velocity boundary layer

Prandtl Number :
It is defined as the ratio of the momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity

Nusselt Number :
It is defined as the ratio of the convection heat flux to conduction heat flux in
the fluid boundary layer
Physical Significance of the Dimensionless Parameters (contd.) :
Stanton Number :
It is the ratio of Nusselt number and the product of Reynolds number and
Prandtl number

Peclet Number :
It is defined as the ratio of heat transfer by convection to heat transfer by
conduction