Localization in wireless Sensor

Networks
Need of localization in WSN networks
The main aim of node in a wireless sensor network is to collect the
data from a specific environment in which the given node is present
It become very crucial that the position of a particular node is
known without which the determination of the location of the
region under consideration is very difficult.
Localization: It is the process by which the location of a particular
node is determined by using different methods .
Localization play a crucial role in the fundamental protocols of
wireless sensor networks such as
sensor network quality of coverage using the location of active nodes,
controlling wireless network topology based on geometric techniques,
geo- graphic routing of messages among wireless sensor nodes based on the
location of the current node, its neighbor nodes, and the destination node and
location information of certain events captured by wireless sensors
 Terms used in localization
• Unknown Nodes: Also known as free or dumb nodes, this term refers to the
nodes of the network that do not know their localization
information.
• Settled Nodes: These nodes were initially unknown nodes that managed to
estimate their positions by using the localization system.

• Beacon Nodes :Also known as landmarks or anchors, these are the nodes
that do not need a localization system in order to estimate
their position. Their localization is obtained by manual
placement or external means such as GPS.
 Localization Process
• The problem of sensor localization is to find out the location of all or subset
of sensor nodes.
• Localization process localizes the sensor nodes based on input data.
• If there is any anchor available in the network, the common inputs are the
location of anchors while other inputs are based on the measurement
techniques.
 The Components Of Localization Systems

• Distance/angle estimation: This component is responsible for estimating

information about the distances and/or angles between two nodes. This
information will be used by the other components of the localization
system.
• Position computation: This component is responsible for computing a
node’s position based on available information concerning distances/
angles and positions of reference nodes.
• Localization algorithm: This is the main component of a localization
system. It determines how the available information will be manipulated in
order to allow most or all of the nodes of a WSN to estimate their positions.
Classification of Localization Techniques
 Centralized Localization Techniques
• In the centralized localization, all the measurements are collected at central
base station (BS), where the computation takes place.
• After that the results are forwarded back to the nodes. The data
transmission in the network causes latency, more consumption of energy
and bandwidth.
• The benefits of this technique are that they eliminate the problem of
computation in every node.
• The drawback of this scheme is lack of ability to access data in proper way
as well as inadequate scaling.
• It is more accessible for small scale.
• The popular centralized localizations algorithms are: Multi Dimensional
Scaling-Mobile Assisted Programming (MDSMAP), Semi Definite
Programming (SDP), Simulated Annealing based Localization (LBSA).
 Distributed Localization Techniques

• In distributed localization, sensor nodes perform the required

computation themselves and communicate with each other to
get their own location in network.
• On the basis of range measurements, the distributed
localization can be categorized into
1)Range Based Localization Techniques
2)Range free localization Techniques
 Range Based Localization Techniques

• The range based techniques require distance (or angle) between nodes for
estimating the positions.
• Range based techniques compute the precise distance between transmitting
and receiving nodes on the basis of distance estimation methods.
• Thus these techniques contain diverse distance estimation methods to
compute the inter node distance or range to measure their locality and then
to calculate the position with help of some principles of geometry.
1) Received signal strength indication
(RSSI).
2) Time of arrival/time difference of arrival (ToA/TDoA).
3) Angle of arrival (AoA).
 Distance/Angle Estimation
• Distance/angle estimation consists in identifying the distance or angle
between two nodes. Such estimates constitute an important component of
localization systems, because they are used by both the position
computation and localization algorithm components.
• Different methods can be used to estimate such information.
1) Received signal strength indication (RSSI).
2) Time of arrival/time difference of arrival (ToA/TDoA).
3) Angle of arrival (AoA).
 Received signal strength indication (RSSI)

• RSSI can be used to estimate the distance between two nodes based on the
strength of the signal received by another node
• A sender node sends a signal with a determined strength that fades as the
signal propagates.
• The bigger the distance to the receiver node, the lesser the signal strength
when it arrives at that node.
• Theoretically, the signal strength is inversely proportional to squared
distance, and a known radio propagation model can be used to convert the
signal strength into distance.
• However, in real-world environments, this indicator is highly influenced by
noises, obstacles, and the type of antenna, which makes it hard to model
mathematically.
 Time (Difference) Of Arrival
• Different methods try to estimate distances between two nodes
using time based measures.
• In this case the distance between two nodes is directly proportional
to the time the signal takes to propagate from one point to another.
• This way, if a signal was sent at time t1 and reached the receiver
node at time t2, the distance between sender and receiver is
d = sr(t2 – t1),
• Where sr is the propagation speed of the radio signal (speed of
light),
• t1 and t2 are the times when the signal was sent and received
• The errors in the distance estimations obtained by TDoA are
approximately in centimeters
• Drawback - Need for extra hardware to send the second signal,
which increases node cost.
Time (Difference) Of Arrival

D = sr(t2 – t1),
• ToA has two types, one-way ToA and two way
ToA.
• One-way ToA measures the one-way signal
propagation time and requires the sender and the
receiver to be synchronized with each other.
• In two- way ToA, in addition to the first signal, the
receiver then transmits a response signal back to
transmitter.
• So we have four time points and the transmitter
uses them, together with signal velocity, to
measure the distance.
One way and two way ToA
• dij =( (t4 −t1)−(t3 −t2)/2 )×v
• V- velocity of signal
• t3 and t4 are sending and receiving times of the
response signal.
• Hence the transmitter is calculating the receiver’s
location.
• Note that a third message is necessary to inform the
receiver about its location.
• Moreover this two-way technique does not require
synchronization of the sender and the receiver, hence
making it a preferred approach.
 Time difference of arrival
• The time difference of arrival (TDoA) approach uses
two signals that travel with different velocities.
• As shown in Figure, the transmitting node sends a
signal with speed v1 at time t1, the receiving node
receives this signal at time t2.
• After a time delay tdelay = t3 −t1, the transmitter
sends another signal with velocity v2, the receiver gets
this signal at time t4.
• Then we can measure the distance between
transmitter and receiver using these measurements.
• dij = (t4 −t2 −tdelay)×(v1 −v2)
 Angle of arrival (AoA)
• The AoA of the signal can also be used by localization systems.
• This angle can be in relation to the node itself, to an electronic compass, or
to a second signal received
• The estimation of the AoA is done by using directive antennas or an array
of receivers usually three or more that are uniformly separated by the node
• Experiments show that this method has an inaccuracy of some degrees
(about 5° ).
• Accuracy of AoA depends on accuracy of
directional antennas.
• Due to additional hardware, cost and size of
sensor node increases.
• Also, this method can easily get corrupted in
NLoS environment due to multi-path fading
and scattering, which prevent the accurate
measurement of the angles.
 Position Computation

• When a node has enough information about distances and/or

angles and positions, it can compute its own position using one
of the methods given below.
• Trilateration.
• Triangulation.
 Trilateration

• Trilateration is the most basic and intuitive method.

• This method computes a node’s position via the intersection
of three circles.
• To estimate its position using trilateration, a node needs to
know the positions of three reference nodes and its distance
from each of these nodes.
• Distances can be estimated using RSSI or ToA methods.
• The circles formed by the position and distance to each of
the references can be represented by the formula
(x^ – xi)2 + (y^ – yi)2 = di 2
• where(x^, y^) is the position we want to compute, (xi, yi) is
the position of the ith reference node, and di is the distance
of the ith reference node to the unknown node.
 Trilateration

(x^ – xi)2 + (y^ – yi)2 = di2

• Each distance measurement defines a circle
around the neighbor with radius equal to the
measurement, on which the node should lie.
• The intersection of three such circles from
three nonlinear neighbors defines the exact
location for the node.
• However, this technique assumes perfect
distance measurements, which is not feasible
in WSNs because of ranging errors.
 Triangulation
• In triangulation , information about angles is used instead of distances.
• Position computation can be done remotely or by the node itself; the latter is more
common in WSNs.
• At least three reference nodes are required.
• The unknown node estimates its angle to each of the three reference nodes and,
based on these angles and the positions of the reference nodes (which form a
triangle), computes its own position using simple trignometrical relationships.
• While the accuracy of the range-based localization
protocols is high, the cost associated with them is
also high because of the additional energy
consumption for ranging measurements.
• On the other hand, several applications of WSNs
do not require very accurate location information
and only coarse localization may be sufficient.
• The range-free localization protocols provide an
efficient way to localize the sensor nodes without
specific ranging measurements.
 Range Free Localization Techniques
• In range free schemes, special hardware for distance
estimation are not used. So its low cost and simplicity in
estimation of distance have attracted the attention of people in
recent years
Approximate point in triangle (apit)
• APIT requires a heterogeneous network of sensing devices
where a small percentage of these devices are equipped with
high-powered transmitters and location information
obtained via GPS or some other mechanism. These location
equipped devices are referred to as anchors.
• Using beacons from these anchors, APIT employs area-based
approach to isolate triangular regions between beaconing
nodes. Anchors are location aware sensors in the sensor
network.
• After a node M has received location messages
from a set of anchors, it evaluates all possible
triangles formed by the anchors.
• If there exists a direction in which M is departure
from points A, B, and C simultaneously, then M is
outside of ∆ABC. Otherwise, M is inside ∆ABC.
• signal strengths between nodes and an anchor
can be used to estimate which node is closer to
the anchor.
 DV-Hop
• DV-Hop localization uses a mechanism similar to the classical distance vector
routing method.
• One anchor node broadcasts a message which contains the anchors’ positions with
hop count. Each receiving node keeps the minimum value, which it receives.
• After that it ignores the other message with higher values.
• In this scheme, all nodes in the network and other anchors obtain the shortest
distance in hops.
• When an anchor node knows the location of other anchor nodes and the distance in
hops between them, it can determine the average size of one hop called the
correction factor.
• The correction factor ci of anchor node i is:
• Correction factors are propagated in the network via controlled flooding which
means that each node uses only one correction factor, usually the first from the
closest neighbour.
• When a node knows the distance in hops between it and anchors nodes (at least 3)
and the correction factor, it can implement trilateration to estimate its own location.
Example
• For example in the network shown in Figure , if d(A1,A2) = 50,
d(A2,A3) = 60, d(A1,A3) = 80,
• the correction factor of A1 will be c1 = (50 + 80)/(2 + 6) = 16.25.
• The same c2 = (50 + 60)/(2 + 5) = 15.71,
• c3 = (60 + 80)/(6 + 5) = 12.73.
• Node S has A2 as the closest anchor so it will use correction factor
c2 = 15.71.
• It can calculate the distances between itself and anchor nodes by
multiplying c2 with number of hops with each of the three anchor
nodes (3x15.71 to A1, 2x15.71 to A2, 3x15.71 to A3).
• Then trilateration can be used to find its location in the network.
 Centroid
• Centroid scheme uses proximity based grained localization
algorithm.
• In centroid localization algorithm node’s location is computed on
the basis of several reference node positions.
• The centroid localization algorithm uses the location (xi,yi) of
anchor nodes (reference node). After receiving the information,
unknown node estimate their position by using following formula:

• Where indicate the estimation of position of sensor node

and N is the number of anchor nodes.
Centroid Algorithm
 Gradient
• In gradient algorithm, unknown nodes obtain their locations through
multilateration. It also uses hop count which is initially set to zero and
incremented as it propagates to other nearby nodes.
• Gradient algorithm follows certain steps such as the following:
• In the first step, anchor nodes broadcasts a message containing its
coordinates and hop count value.
• In the second step, unknown node determines the shortest path between
itself and anchor node from which it receives beacon message. The
estimated distance can be calculated by following equation:
• In the third step, minimum error in which node
calculates its coordinate is computed by
following equation:

• Where dji is gradient propagation based

estimated distance.
 Challenges in localization
Some of the basic challenges faced in localization are:

Localization of sensor nodes using GPS is not suitable, because it is less

energy efficient and expensive. It needs large size of hardware and has a
line of sight problem. If GPS is installed on every node, then it increases
the node size and deployment cost.

It is more challenging to design localization system for WSN as compared

to other networks. In WSNs, it is important to consider all of the
limitations such as battery power, low processing, limited memory, low
data rates, and small size.

Accuracy is a highly important factor in all localization techniques. When a

node localizes itself with wrong information of coordinates and propagates
wrong information throughout the network, overall accuracy of the
localization process is decreased.
 Challenges in localization (contd.)
• Node density is an important factor in designing localization algorithm. For example,
in beacon node-based algorithms, beacon node density should be high for accurate
localization, whereas if beacon node density is low, then accuracy is decreased and
localization algorithms cannot perform well.

• In mobile WSNs, nodes may leave and move to another location. In such cases,
topological changes may occur. In mobile WSNs, scalable mechanism is needed
which is capable of catering to topological changes. Furthermore, it is very difficult to
repeatedly estimate the position of a node which is mobile in nature.

• Localization algorithm should be suitable for deployment in actual 3D space.

• Algorithm should be designed not only for one specific application ,but for others as
well. If algorithm is designed for indoor environments, it should also work for
outdoor environments.
 Node mobility issues
• There are 3 types of mobility's in WSNs: moving nodes and fixed beacons/anchors,
moving anchors and fixed nodes, and mobility of both kinds the nodes and anchors.

• Localization techniques in mobility conditions is a continuous process performed

periodically.

• These techniques could be categorized to three main ideas :

1. Using referential anchor nodes equipped with GPS processor. These referential
nodes could track the mobility variations to remap the network topology. It faces the
same troubles as all GPS based techniques including expensive hardware, higher
energy consumption and low performance in some environments especially indoor.
2. Re-computation of algorithms in periodic way is also another way to manage
mobile topologies, but this method requires huge number of computations to record
the changes in the network topology and that leads to power consumption and higher
load on the processor.
 Node mobility issues(contd.)
3. The last trend is to use predefined information about the nature of sensors’
mobility. This method is more preferable than the other ideas in terms of power
optimization and compatibility with large scale networks with minimum
computations. It contains multiple known techniques like:

(a) Monte Carlo Localization (MCL): It is also known as particle-filter method.

The technique uses a particle filter to represent the distribution of similar cases after
estimating the location and orientation of mobile node by a well-known predefined
map .

(b) Convex Approximation Localization (CAL): The network is divided to smaller

convex regions. Then these sub-regions define the angle at concavity spot which
indicates the localization error. Measurements are done to define sharpness and
depth of the concavity region to be refined from errors .

(c)Moving-Baseline Localization (MBL): This method is mainly used when there

is unavailability of reference coordinates for nodes to align themselves. Each node
starts to build its own spatial map in collaboration with the moving group by
exchanging signals in UWB (Ultra Wide Band).
 Future work and new trends in
localization
• Developing new techniques that rationalize GPS usage.
• Error minimization to increase accuracy of estimation of the sensor node
location, which includes using mathematical and geometrical relationships
and developing new measurement techniques.
• Enhancements in network topologies’ density to reduce number of
anchors/beacons required to estimate good coverage for all other sensor
nodes.
• The security of WSN is a rich field for researches. Some of the proposed
solutions include : SeRLoc (for Blackhole and Sybil attacks), Beacon Suite
(to avoid malicious anchors and detect replayed signals), attack resistant
location estimation (by estimating minimum mean square error or by
voting-based location), and SPINE (by distance bounding to at least three
anchors).
• The 3D localization is still an area of interest of some researches as most
of the researches concentrate on plain surfaces which may not be efficient
to simulate in the real world.