6 Chemical reactions

6.1 Physical and chemical changes

1 Identify physical and chemical changes, and describe the differences between
them

Physical change

● Physical changes (such as melting or evaporating) do not produce any new

chemical substances
● These changes are often easy to reverse
● Making a mixture from 2 or more substances or dissolving a solute in a
solvent are examples of physical changes as no new substances are produced
and are usually relatively easy to separate

Chemical change

● During chemical changes (usually referred to as chemical

reactions), new chemical substances are formed that have very
different properties to the reactants
● There may be signs that a new substance has formed, such as:
o A colour change
o A precipitate being formed
o Bubbles of gas being produced
● Most chemical reactions are very difficult to reverse
● Energy changes also accompany chemical changes and energy can be given out
(exothermic) or taken in (endothermic)
o The majority of chemical reactions are exothermic with only a small
number being endothermic

6.2 Rate of reaction

1 Describe collision theory in terms of:

(a) number of particles per unit volume

Effect of concentration/number of particles per unit volume

  Explanation:

● Increasing the concentration of a solution increases the collision rate

● This is because there will be more reactant particles per unit volume, causing
more frequent collisions so there are more successful collisions per second,
increasing the rate of reaction

(b) frequency of collisions between particles

Greater the frequency of collisions between particles, higher the rate of reaction.
Collision theory states that the rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the
number of collisions between reactant molecules. The more often reactant
molecules collide, the more often they react with one another, and the faster
the reaction rate.

(c) kinetic energy of particles

Greater the kinetic energy, higher the rate of the reaction. Collision theory states
that the rate of a chemical reaction increases with increasing kinetic energy. The
more often the reactant molecules collide, the more they react with one another
so the reaction rate increases.

(d) activation energy, Ea

Energy level diagram showing the effect of the use of a catalyst on the
activation energy

  Explanation:

● Catalysts (including enzymes) create alternative reaction pathways which

have a lower activation energy
● This means that more collisions will have sufficient energy to be successful
● When a catalyst is used, the rate of reaction will increase

2 State that a catalyst increases the rate of a reaction, decreases the activation
energy, Ea, of a reaction and is unchanged at the end of a reaction
3 Describe and explain the effect on the rate of reactions of:

(a) changing the concentration of solutions

 Concentration

● Increasing the concentration means there are more particles per cm 3, so

there is less space between the particles
● Since there are more particles then it follows that there are more frequent
collisions, increasing collision rate and so the rate of the reaction increases

(b) changing the pressure of gases

When the pressure of a gas is increased, its particles are forced closer together,
decreasing the amount of empty space between the particles. Therefore, an
increase in the pressure of a gas is also an increase in the concentration of the gas.
For gaseous reactions, an increase in pressure increases the rate of reaction due
to a greater number of collisions between reacting particles.

(c) changing the surface area of solids

Effect of surface area

A single 2 cm length cube has a surface area of 2 x 2 x 6 = 24cm 2. Cutting it
into 8 x 1cm cubes means it now has a surface area of 1 x 1 x 6 x 8 = 48cm 2

  Explanation:

● Increasing the surface area of a solid increases the collision rate

● This is because more of the solid particles will be exposed to the other
reactant so there will be more frequent collisions and therefore more
successful collisions per second, increasing the rate of reaction

(d) changing the temperature

Temperature

● Particles need to have sufficient energy to react when they collide

● This is called the activation energy
● At low temperatures only, a small number of particles will have the required
activation energy so the reaction will be slow
● At higher temperatures the particles have more kinetic energy so they move
faster and with more energy
● The collisions are therefore more energetic, and there are then a greater
number of particles with sufficient energy to react, so the rate of reaction
increases

 
(e) adding or removing a catalyst, including enzymes using collision theory

4 Describe and evaluate practical methods for investigating the rate of a reaction,
including change in mass of a reactant or a product and the formation of a gas

Effect of surface area of a solid on the rate of reaction:

Diagram showing the process of downwards displacement to investigate the
effect of the surface area of a solid on the rate of reaction

  Method:

● Add dilute hydrochloric acid into a conical flask

● Use a delivery tube to connect this flask to a measuring cylinder upside down
in a bucket of water (downwards displacement)
● Add calcium carbonate chips into the conical flask and quickly put the bung
back into the flask
● Measure the volume of gas produced in a fixed time using the measuring
cylinder
● Repeat with different sizes of calcium carbonate chips (lumps, crushed and
powdered)

Result:

● Smaller sizes of chips cause an increase in the surface area of the solid, so
the rate of reaction will increase
● This is because more surface area of the particles will be exposed to the
other reactant so there will be more frequent and successful collisions,
increasing the rate of reaction

Effect of concentration of a solution on the rate of reaction:

Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of
concentration on the rate of reaction

  Method:

● Measure 50 cm3 of sodium thiosulfate solution into a flask

3
● Measure 5 cm  of dilute hydrochloric acid into a measuring cylinder
 ● Draw a cross on a piece of paper and put it underneath the flask
● Add the acid into the flask and immediately start the stopwatch
● Look down at the cross from above and stop the stopwatch when the cross
can no longer be seen
● Repeat using different concentrations of sodium thiosulfate solution (mix
different volumes of sodium thiosulfate solution with water to dilute it)

Result:

● With an increase in the concentration of a solution, the rate of reaction will

increase
● This is because there will be more reactant particles in a given volume,
allowing more frequent and successful collisions, increasing the rate of
reaction

Effect of temperature on the rate of reaction:

Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of
temperature on the rate of reaction

Method:

● Dilute hydrochloric acid is heated to a set temperature using a water bath

● Add the dilute hydrochloric acid into a conical flask
● Add a strip of magnesium and start the stopwatch
● Stop the time when the magnesium fully reacts and disappears
● Repeat at different temperatures and compare results

Result:
 ● With an increase in the temperature, the rate of reaction will increase
● This is because the particles will have more kinetic energy than the required
activation energy, therefore more frequent and successful collisions will
occur, increasing the rate of reaction

Effect of a catalyst on the rate of reaction:

 Di
agram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of a catalyst on
the rate of reaction

Method:
 ● Add hydrogen peroxide into a conical flask
● Use a delivery tube to connect this flask to a measuring cylinder upside down
in a tub of water (downwards displacement)
● Add the catalyst manganese (IV) oxide into the conical flask and quickly
place the bung into the flask
● Measure the volume of gas produced in a fixed time using the measuring
cylinder
● Repeat experiment without the catalyst of manganese (IV) oxide and
compare results

Result:

● Using a catalyst will increase the rate of reaction

● The catalyst will provide an alternative pathway requiring lower activation
energy so more colliding particles will have the necessary activation energy
to react
● This will allow more frequent and successful collisions, increasing the rate of
reaction

5 Interpret data, including graphs, from rate of reaction experiments

Concentration
Graph showing the effect of the concentration of a solution on the rate of
reaction

  Explanation:

● Compared to a reaction with a reactant at a low concentration, the graph line

for the same reaction but at a higher concentration has a steeper gradient
at the start and becomes horizontal sooner
● This shows that with increased concentration of a solution, the rate of
reaction will increase
● As long as the reactant having its concentration changed is already in
excess, the amount of product formed will not change, but will simply be
formed faster
 

Particle size

Graph showing the effect of the surface area of a solid on the rate of
reaction

Explanation:

● Compared to a reaction with lumps of reactant, the graph line for the same
reaction but with powdered reactant has a steeper gradient at the start and
becomes horizontal sooner
● This shows that with increased surface area of the solid, the rate of
reaction will increase

 Catalysts

  Explanation:

● Compared to a reaction without a catalyst, the graph line for the same
reaction but with a catalyst has a steeper gradient at the start and becomes
horizontal sooner
 ● This shows that when a catalyst is used, the rate of reaction will
increase
● A catalyst will never change how much product is made

Temperature

Graph showing the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction

Explanation:

● Compared to a reaction at a low temperature, the graph line for the same
reaction but at a higher temperature has a steeper gradient at the start and
becomes horizontal sooner
● This shows that with increased temperature, the rate of reaction will
increase
● Temperature will not affect how much product is made in an irreversible
reaction
Explaining the shape of the graph

● The steeper the curve, the faster the rate of the reaction
● The curve is steepest initially so the rate is quickest at the beginning of the
reaction
● As the reaction progresses, the concentration of the reactants decreases,
the rate decreases shown by the curve becoming less steep
● When one of the reactants is used up, the reaction stops, the rate becomes
zero and the curve levels off to a horizontal line
● The amount of product formed in a reaction is determined by the limiting
reactant:
o If the amount of limiting reactant increases, the amount of product
formed increases
o If the amount of the reactant in excess increases, the amount of
product remains the same

6.3 Reversible reactions and equilibrium

1 State that some chemical reactions are reversible as shown by the symbol ⇌

2 Describe how changing the conditions can change the direction of a reversible
reaction for:

(a) the effect of heat on hydrated compounds

Heating a hydrate leads to an endothermic reaction that produces a residue

known as the anhydrous compound. This compound is different in structure,
texture and even colour in some cases, from its parent hydrate.

(b) the addition of water to anhydrous compounds including copper (II) sulphate
and cobalt (II) chloride

The colour change on adding water to anhydrous copper(II) sulphate has been used
as a test for the presence of water in a liquid. The more observant should notice
that the addition of water to anhydrous copper(II) sulphate is exothermic, as
the tube becomes noticeably hot if the water is added very slowly. The colour
change that occurs is white to blue.

In the presence of water, anhydrous cobalt chloride, CoCl2 which is blue in colour,
as it absorbs water, turns pink.
3 State that a reversible reaction in a closed system is at equilibrium when:

(a) the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction

(b) the concentrations of reactants and products are no longer changing

4 Predict and explain, for a reversible reaction, how the position of equilibrium is
affected by:

(a) changing temperature

According to Le Chatelier's Principle, the position of equilibrium moves in such a

way as to tend to undo the change that you have made. If you increase the
temperature, the position of equilibrium will move in such a way as to reduce
the temperature again. It will do that by favouring the reaction which absorbs
heat.

(b) changing pressure

When there is an increase in pressure, the equilibrium will shift towards the side
of the reaction with fewer moles of gas. When there is a decrease in pressure, the
equilibrium will shift towards the side of the reaction with more moles of gas.

(c) changing concentration

If the concentration of a reactant (on the left) is increased, the equilibrium

position moves in the direction away from this reactant, and so more of the
products are produced (on the right).

(d) using a catalyst using information provided

Because a catalyst speeds up the forward and back reaction to the same extent
and adding a catalyst does not affect the relative rates of the two reactions, it
cannot affect the position of equilibrium.

5 State the symbol equation for the production of ammonia in the Haber process

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

6 State the sources of the hydrogen (methane) and nitrogen (air) in the Haber
process
Hydrogen is obtained by reacting methane with steam in presence of NiO as a
catalyst.

Nitrogen is obtained via the fractional distillation of the air which is liquefied.

7 State the typical conditions in the Haber process:

Temperature: 450°C (exothermic)

Pressure: 20000kPa /200 atm

Iron catalyst

8 State the symbol equation for the conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur
trioxide in the Contact process

2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)

9 State the sources of the sulphur dioxide (burning sulphur or roasting sulphide
ores) and oxygen (air) in the Contact process

10 State the typical conditions for the conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur
trioxide in the Contact process

Temperature: 450°C (exothermic)

Pressure: 200kPa /2 atm

Vanadium(V) oxide catalyst

11 Explain, in terms of rate of reaction and position of equilibrium, why the typical
conditions stated are used in the Haber process and in the Contact process,
including safety considerations and economics

6.4 Redox

1 Use a Roman numeral to indicate the oxidation number of an element in a

compound

2 Define redox reactions as involving simultaneous reduction and oxidation

3 Define oxidation in terms of:

(a) gain of oxygen

(b) loss of electrons

(c) an increase in oxidation number

4 Define reduction in terms of:

(a) loss of oxygen

(b) gain of electrons

(c) a decrease in oxidation number

5 Identify redox reactions as reactions involving gain and loss of oxygen, or gain
and loss of electrons

6 Identify redox reactions by changes in oxidation number using:

(a) the oxidation number of elements in their uncombined state is zero

(b) the oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the same as the charge on the
ion

(c) the sum of the oxidation numbers in a compound is zero

(d) the sum of the oxidation numbers in an ion is equal to the charge on the
ion

7 Identify redox reactions by the colour changes involved when using acidified
aqueous potassium manganate (VII) or aqueous potassium iodide

Test for Oxidising Agent:

Use of a Reducing Agent e.g. aqueous potassium iodide, KI(aq)

Observation: Colourless solution turns brown

Reaction: 2I–(aq) => I2(aq) + 2e–

Test for Reducing Agent:

Use of an Oxidising Agent e.g. acidified potassium manganate (VII)

Observation: Purple solution decolourises

Reaction: MnO4–(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e– => Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

8 Define an oxidising agent as a substance that oxidises another substance and is

itself reduced

9 Define a reducing agent as a substance that reduces another substance and is

itself oxidised

10 Identify oxidation, oxidising agents, reduction and reducing agents in redox

reactions

Extended notes for oxidation and reduction:

Oxidation & Reduction

● Redox reactions can also be defined in terms of electron transfer

● Oxidation is a reaction in which an element, ion or compound loses electrons
○ The oxidation number of the element is increased
○ This can be shown in a half equation, e.g. when silver reacts with
chlorine, silver is oxidised to silver ions:

Ag → Ag+ + e-

● Reduction is a reaction in which an element, ion or compound gains electrons

○ The oxidation number of the element is decreased
○ This can be shown in a half equation, e.g. when oxygen reacts with
magnesium, oxygen is reduced to oxide ions:
 O2 + 4e- → 2O2-

Example: Identifying Redox Reactions

zinc + copper sulphate → zinc sulphate + copper

Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu

● The ions present (with state symbols) in the equation are:

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) →Zn2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + Cu(s)

● The spectator ions (those that do not change) are SO42-(aq)

● These can be removed and the ionic equation written as:

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

● By analysing the ionic equation, we can split the reaction into two half
equations by adding in the electrons to show how the changes in charge have
occurred:

Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-

Cu2+(aq) +2e- → Cu(s)

● It then becomes clear that zinc has been oxidised as it has lost electrons
 ● Copper ions have been reduced as they have gained electrons

Oxidation Number
● The oxidation number (also called oxidation state) is a number assigned to an
atom or ion in a compound which indicates the degree of oxidation (or
reduction)
● It shows the number of electrons that an atom has lost, gained or shared in
forming a compound
● The oxidation number helps you to keep track of the movement of electrons
in a redox process
● It is written as a +/- sign followed by a number (not to be confused with
charge which is written by a number followed by a +/- sign)
● E.g. aluminium in a compound usually has the oxidation state +3
● A few simple rules help guide you through the process of determining the
oxidation number of any element

Table of Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers

 ● Redox reactions can be identified by the changes in the oxidation number
when a reactant goes to a product

Identifying Redox Reactions by Colour Changes

 ● The tests for redox reactions involve the observation of a colour change in
the solution being analysed
● Two common examples are acidified potassium manganate(VII), and
potassium iodide
● Potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4, is an oxidising agent which is often used
to test for the presence of reducing agents
● When acidified potassium manganate(VII) is added to a reducing agent its
colour changes from purple to colourless

Diagram to show the colour change when potassium manganate(VII) is added to a

reducing agent
● Potassium iodide, KI, is a reducing agent which is often used to test for the
presence of oxidising agents
● When added to an acidified solution of an oxidising agent such as aqueous
chlorine or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), the solution turns a red-brown colour
due to the formation of iodine, I2:

2KI (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) + H2O2 (aq) → I2 (aq) + K2SO4 (aq) + 2H20 (l)

● The potassium iodide is oxidised as it loses electrons and hydrogen peroxide

is reduced, therefore potassium iodide is acting as a reducing agent as it will
itself be oxidised:

2I- → I2 + 2e-
Diagram to show the colour change when potassium iodide is added to an oxidising
agent