Visvesvaraya Technological University Belagavi

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
BELAGAVI
MATHEMATICS HANDBOOK
I and II Semester BE Program
Effective from the academic year 2022-2023
VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, BELAGAVI
Derivatives of some standard functions:

d
dx
c  0
dx
 
d n
x  n x n 1
dx
 
d x
e  ex
dx
 
d x
a  a x log a
d d
 sin x   cos x  cos x    sin x
dx dx
d d
 tan x   sec2 x  cot x    cos ec 2 x
dx dx
d d
 sec x   sec x tan x  cos ecx    cos ecx cot x
dx dx
d 1 d log e
 log x    log a x   a
dx x dx x
1
d

sin 1 x  1 d

cos 1 x 
dx 1  x2 dx 1  x2
1
d
dx

tan 1 x  1
1  x2
d
dx

cot 1 x 1  x2
d d
 sinh x   cosh x  cosh x   sinh x
dx dx
d d
 tanh x   sec h2 x  coth x    cos ech2 x
dx dx
d d
 sec hx    sec hx tanh x  cos echx    cos echx coth x
dx dx
Rules of Differentiation:
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(𝑐𝑢) = 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
d d
d d d d u
v u   u v 
 uv   u  v   v  u   
dx dx
dx dx dx dx  v  v2
1|Page
Parametric differentiation:
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 ( )
𝑑𝑡
If 𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡) & 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ( )
𝑑𝑡
Chain Rule:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) & 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) then =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Integrals of some standard functions:
(Constant of Integration C to be added in all the integrals)
x n 1 1
 x dx  n  1  xdx  log x
n
 log xdx  x log x  x, x  0  kdx  k x

ax
 e dx  e  a dx 
x x x
log a
 sin x dx   cos x  cos x dx  sin x
 tan x dx  log  sec x   cot x dx  log  sin x 
 sec x dx  log  sec x  tan x   cos ecx dx  log  cos ecx  cot x 
 sec x dx  tan x  cos ec x dx   cot x
2 2
 sec x tan x dx  sec x  cos ecx cot x dx   cos ecx
 sinh x dx  cosh x  cosh x dx  sinh x

 tanh x dx  log  cosh x   coth x dx  log  sinh x 
 sec h x dx  tanh x  cos ech x dx   coth x

2 2
1 1
dx  tan 1  x a 
1
a  dx  sin 1  x a 
2
x 2
a a x
2 2
f '
 x f '  x
 f  x  dx  log  f  x    f  x
dx  2 f  x 
eax
 e cos bx dx 
ax
 a cos bx  b sin bx 
a 2  b2
eax
 e sin bx dx 
ax
 a sin bx  b cos bx 
a 2  b2
2|Page
a a b a
 f  x  dx   f  a  x  dx  f  x  dx    f  x  dx
0 0 a b
 a
2 f  x  dx f  x  is even function
f  x  dx   0
a
if

a  0 if f  x  is odd function

𝑎
2𝑎
2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = {
0
0
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(2𝑎 − 𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
Integration by parts:
 u  x  v  x  dx  u  x    v  x  dx    u  x    v  x  dx  dx
d
dx
Bernoulli’s rule of integration:
If the 1st function is a polynomial and integration of 2nd function is known. Then
∫ 𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢′ ∬ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢" ∭ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥 − 𝑢′′′ ∬ ∬ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥
+ ⋯⋯⋯⋯
Where dashes denote the differentiation of u .
Or
∫ 𝑢(𝑥)𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 ∙ 𝑣1 − 𝑢′ ∙ 𝑣2 + 𝑢′′ ∙ 𝑣3 − 𝑢′′′ ∙ 𝑣4 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
Where dashes denote the differentiation of u , vk denotes the integration of v, k times with respect
to x.
Vector calculus formulae:
Position vector r  x iˆ  y ˆj  z kˆ

Magnitude r  x2  y 2  z 2
Dot product of unit vectors iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  1 and iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  iˆ  0

Cross product of unit vectors iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0 and iˆ  ˆj  kˆ, ˆj  kˆ  iˆ, iˆ  kˆ   ˆj
A. B
Angle between two vectors cos  
A B
A
Unit vector Aˆ 
A
3|Page
 ds
Velocity V
dt
 d 2s
Acceleration a 2
dt
For any vectors 𝐴⃗ = (𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑏1 𝑗 + 𝑐1 𝑘), 𝐵

⃗⃗ = (𝑎2 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑐2 𝑘) & 𝐶⃗ = (𝑎3 𝑖 + 𝑏3 𝑗 + 𝑐3 𝑘)
 
Dot product of two vectors A  B  a1 a2  b1 b2  c1 c2
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
Cross product of two vectors A  B  a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
a1 a2 a3

      
Scalar triple product A  B C    A  B   C  b1 b2 b3
   
c1 c2 c3
Trigonometric formulae:
 Identities
sin 2   cos 2   1
1  tan 2   sec2 
1  cot 2   cos e c 2 
 Compound angle formulae
sin  A  B   sin A cos B  cos A sin B
sin  A  B   sin A cos B  cos A sin B
cos  A  B   cos A cos B  sin A sin B
cos  A  B   cos A cos B  sin A sin B
tan A  tan B
tan  A  B  
1  tan A tan B
tan A  tan B
tan  A  B  
1  tan A tan B
 Transformation formulae
1 1
sin A cos B  sin  A  B   sin  A  B   , cos A sin B  sin  A  B   sin  A  B  
2 2
1 1
cos A cos B  cos  A  B   cos  A  B   , sin A sin B  cos  A  B   cos  A  B  
2 2
CD CD , CD CD
sin C  sin D  2sin   cos   sin C  sin D  2sin   cos  
 2   2   2   2 
CD CD , CD CD
cos C  cos D  2 cos   cos   cos C  cos D  2sin   sin  
 2   2   2   2 
4|Page
 Multiple angle formulae

sin 2 A  2 sin A cos A sin A  2sin  A 2  cos  A 2 
cos 2 A  cos 2 A  sin 2 A cos A  cos 2  A 2   sin 2  A 2 
sin 2 A 
1  cos 2  cos 2 A 
1  cos 2 
2 2
1 1
sin 3 A  3sin A  sin 3 A cos3 A  3cos A  cos 3 A
4 4
Hyperbolic and Euler’s formulae

e x  e x e x  e x
sinh x  cosh x 
2 2
cosh 2   sinh 2   1
ei  cos   i sin 

eix  e ix eix  e ix
sin x  cos x 
2i 2
Logarithmic formulae:
 A
log e  A B   log e  A   log e  B  log e    log e  A   log e  B 
B
log e B
log e x n  n log e x log a B 
log e a
log a a  1 log a 1  0
log e 0  
Solid geometry formulae:
 x2  x1    y2  y1    z2  z1 
2 2 2
Distance between two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is
Direction cosines l  cos  , m  cos  , n  cos 
a b c
Direction ratios l  , m , n .
a 2  b2  c 2 a 2  b2  c 2 a 2  b2  c 2
Direction ratios of a line joining two points (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
5|Page
nth Derivatives of standard functions
D n  ax  b    m  m  1 m  2  ......  m  n  1 ax  b  .a n

m mn
 
D n  ax  b    n !a n
n
 
Dn  xn   n!
 1   1 n !a
n n
n
D   
 ax  b   ax  b 
n 1
 1  n  1!a n .
n 1
D log  ax  b   
n
 ax  b 
n
D n  a mx   a mx  m log a 
n
 
D n eax  a n e ax
D n sin  ax  b    a n sin  ax  b  n. / 2 
D n cos  ax  b    a n cos  ax  b  n. / 2 

D n eax sin  bx  c    a 2  b 2    a 
n2
eax sin bx  c  n tan 1 b

D n eax cos  bx  c    a 2  b 2  cos  bx  c  n tan  b  
n2
1
eax
a
Polar coordinates and polar curves:

Angle between radius vector and tangent
d 1 dr
tan   r or cot  
dr r d
Angle of intersection of the curves
 tan 1  tan 2 
1  2  tan 1  
 1  tan 1 tan 2 

Orthogonal condition 1  2  or tan 1  tan 2  1,
2
Pedal equation or p-r equation
P  r sin 
1 1 2
1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
= (1 + cot ∅) = (1 + ( ) )
𝑝2 𝑟 2 𝑟2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃
6|Page
Derivative of arc length:
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 2
In Cartesian: = √1 + ( ) & = √1 + ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑠 1 𝑑𝛳 2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑟 2
In Polar: = √1 + ( ) & = √𝑟 2 + ( )
𝑑𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝛳
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2 2
In Parametric: = √( ) + ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝛳 𝑑𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑟 & 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝑟
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Radius of curvature
3
(1+𝑦1 2 )2
In Cartesian form: 𝜌 =
𝑦2
3
(𝑥̇ 2 +𝑦̇ 2 )2
In parametric form: 𝜌 = 𝑥̇ 𝑦̈−𝑦̇ 𝑥̈
3
(𝑟 2 +𝑟1 2 )2
In polar from: 𝜌 = 𝑟 2 −𝑟𝑟 2
1 +2𝑟1
𝑑𝑟
Pedal Equation: 𝜌 = 𝑟
𝑑𝑝
Indeterminate Forms - L’Hospital’s rule:

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑥)
If 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑎) = 0 , then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑥)
If 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑎) = ∞ , then lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
1 𝑛 1
lim (1 + 𝑛) = 𝑒 , lim (1 + 𝑛)𝑛 = 𝑒
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑥 𝑛 −𝑎 𝑛
lim =1 , lim = 𝑛𝑎𝑛−1
𝜃→0 𝜃 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
Series Expansion:
Taylor’s series expansion about the point x  a.
 x  a  y'  x  a  x  a
2 3
y  x  y a  a  y a

''
 y '''  a   ..
1! 2! 3!
Maclaurin’s Series at the point x  0
x ' x2 x3 x4
y  x   y  0  y  0   y ''  0   y '''  0   y ''''  0   ....
1! 2! 3! 4!
7|Page
Euler’s theorem on homogeneous function and Corollary:

u u
x y n u (Theorem)
x y
u u f (u )
x y n ' (Corollary 1)
x y f (u )
𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢 𝜕2 𝑢
𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 2 = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑢 (Corollary 2)
Composite function:
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑦
If z  f  x, y  and x    t  , y    t  then = +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡
If z  f  x, y  and x    u , v  , y    u , v 
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
= + & = +
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣
If u  f  r , s, t  and r    x, y, z  , s    x, y, z  , t    x, y, z 
u u r u s u t
  
x r x s x t x
u u r u s u t
  
y r y s y t y
u u r u s u t
  
z r z s z t z
Jacobians:
u u u
u u x y z
  u , v  x y   u , v, w  v v v
J  and 
  x, y  v v   x, y , z  x y z
x y w w w
x y z
Multiple Integrals:
Area A=  dx dy - Cartesian form

A
Area A=  rdrd -Polar form

A
8|Page
Volume V=  dx dydz - Cartesian form

V
Volume V=  zdx dy - by double integral

A
 
Gamma function:   n   e x 
x
dx  2 e t t 2 n 1dt
n 1 2
0 0

1 2
Beta function:   m, n    x n 1 1  x 
m 1
dx  2  sin 2 n 1  cos 2 m 1 d
0 0
  m   n
Beta and Gamma relation:   m, n  
  m  n
and  1  2  
Vector Calculus:

 dr
Velocity v (t ) 
dt
 
 d v d2 r
Acceleration a (t )   .
dt dt 2
 
dr dr
The unit tangent vector Tˆ 
dt dt
 
T 1 .T 2
Angle between the tangents cos    
T1 T 2

Component of velocity C.V  v . nˆ , Where n̂ is the unit vector

Component of accelerations C. A  a . nˆ
  
Tangential component of acceleration T .C. A  a . v v

 

Normal component of acceleration N .C. A  a   tangential component    v v
 
Gradient of 
 ˆ  ˆ  ˆ
grad  =   i j k
x z z
Unit vector normal to the surface

n̂ 

Directional Derivative: D. D   . nˆ
9|Page
Angle between the surfaces

1 .2
cos  
1 2

Divergence of vector field F  f1i  f 2 j  f 3k
 f1 f 2 f3
. F  divF   
x z z

Curl of vector field F
iˆ ˆj kˆ
    
  F  curl F 
x y z
f1 f2 f3
Solenoidal vector field
 
div F    F  0
Irrotational vector field
 
Curl F    F  0 .
List of vector identities
curl ( grad )      0.

 

div (curl F )       F   0.
 

 
 
div ( F )    div F   grad  F
 

 
 
curl ( F )    curl F   grad  F
 
Reduction formulae
  n  1 n  3 n  5  .........1 

 when n is even
 n  n  2  n  4  ..............2 2
 /2  /2
 cos xdx   sin xdx  

n n
0 0   n  1 n  3 n  5  .........3 1 when n is odd

 n  n  2  n  4  ................1

  m  1 m  3 .........  n  1 n  3 ......... 

 when m and n is even
  m  n  m  n  2  m  n  4  .............2
 /2 2
 sin x cos xdx  
m n
0   m  1 m  3 .........  n  1 n  3 ......... other cases

  m  n  m  n  2  m  n  4  ..............

10 | P a g e
Differential Equations:
Differential Equations Solution/ substitution
dy
Linear in y  Py  Q y ( I .F )   Q( I .F )dx  C
dx
dx
Linear in x  Px  Q x  I .F    Q  I .F .dy  C
dy
dy
Bernoulli’s  P y  Q yn divide by y n and Put y1 n  z
dx
Exact differential equation
Mdx  Ndy  0 with
M N
 .

y constant
M dx    terms of N not containing x  dy  C
y x
Not exact differential equation 1
I .F .  , Mx  Ny  0
Case 1 : If Mdx  Ndy  0 and Mx  Ny
Mdx  Ndy  0
Case 2 : If the differential equation is of 1
I .F .  with Mx  Ny  0
the form yg1  xy  dx  xg 2  xy  dy  0 Mx  Ny
1  M N 
I .F .  e  or e 
f  x  dx
Case 3: If     f ( x) or C
Cdx
N  y x 
1  N M 
I .F .  e  or e 
f  y  dy
Case 4 : If     f ( y ) or C
Cdy
M  x y 
Case 5 : If the differential equation is of I .F .  x h y k With
the form
x n y n  mydx  nxdy   x p y q  m' ydx  n' xdy   0
' '
p  h 1 q  k 1 p'  h  1 q'  k  1
 and 
m n m' n'
Newton’s law of cooling T  To  C1e  k t
Linear Algebra:
Inverse of a square matrix A
A1 
 adj A .
A
Rank of a Matrix A
The number of non-zero rows in the echelon form of A is equal to rank of A
Normal Form of a Matrix.
Ir 0 
0 0 
 
11 | P a g e
Gauss-Elimination Method
The system is reduced to upper triangular system from which the unknowns are found by
back substitutions.
Gauss-Jordan Method
The system is reduced to diagonal system from which the unknowns are found by back
substitutions.
Eigenvalues
Roots of the characteristic equation A   I  0
Eigen Vectors
Non-zero solution x  xi of A   I x  0
Diagonal form
1 0 0 
D  P AP   0 2 0 
1
 0 0 3 
Computation of power of a square matrix A
A n  P D n P 1
Canonical Form
V  1 y 2  2 y 2  3 y 2  .......  n y 2
1 2 3 n
Nature, Rank and Index of Quadratic forms:

 positive-definite if all the eigenvalues of A are positive.
 positive-semi definite if all the eigenvalues of A are non-negative and at least one of the
eigenvalues is zero.
 negative-definite if all the eigenvalues of A are negative.
 negative-semi definite if all the eigenvalues of A are negative and at least one of the
eigenvalues is zero.
 indefinite if the matrix A has both positive and negative eigenvalues.
 Rank the number of non-zero terms
 Index the number of positive terms
 Signature the number of positive terms minus the number of negative terms
12 | P a g e
Laplace Transforms:
Laplace Transform of Standard Functions
L 1 
1  
L tn 
n!
s n 1
, n  1, 2,3.......
s
Where n is a positive integer
 
L e at 
1
sa
 
L e at 
1
sa
a s
L sin at  L cos at 
s  a2
2
s  a2
2
a s
L sinh at  L cosh at 
s  a2
2
s  a2
2
e as
L u  t   L u  t  a  
1
s s
Properties of the Laplace transform:
𝑓(𝑡) 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠)

Translation
L e at f  t   F  s  a 
(first Shifting Theorem)
dn
L t f  t    1 n F  s 
n n
Multiplication by t
ds
1 s
Time scale L  f  at   F  
a a


t

 1
Integration L   f  t  d   L  f  t 

0 
 s
 f t   
Division by t L    F  s  ds.
 t  s
13 | P a g e
Transform of a Periodic Function: If f (t) is periodic with a period T , then

T
L  f  t  
1
 sT 
e st f  t  dt .
1  e  0
Second Shifting Theorem:
 
If F  s   L f  t  and a  0, then L  f  t  a  u  t  a   e  as L  f  t  .
Transforms of the derivatives:

𝐿{𝑓 ′ (𝑡)} = 𝑠𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑓(0)
𝐿{𝑓′′ (𝑡)} = 𝑠 2 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑠 𝑓(0) − 𝑓′(0)
𝐿{𝑓 𝑛 (𝑡)} = 𝑠 𝑛 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑓(0) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓 ′ (0) − 𝑠 𝑛−2 𝑓"(0) − ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ − 𝑓 𝑛−1 (0)
Inverse Laplace Transform:

Transform Inverse Transform
F ( s )  L f (t ) f (t )  L1 F ( s)
 
L tn 
n!
s n 1
t n 1  1 
 L1  n 
 n  1!  s 
Where n is a positive integer Where n is a positive integer
 1 
 
L e at 
1
eat  L1  
sa s  a
a  a 
L sinh at  sinh at  L1  2 2 
s  a2 s  a 
2
s  s 
L cosh at  cosh at  L1  2 2 
s  a2 s  a 
2
a  a 
L sin at  sin at  L1  2 2 
s  a2 s  a 
2
s  s 
L cos at  cos at  L1  2 2 
s  a2 s  a 
2
14 | P a g e
Formulae on Shifting rule:

𝑠−𝑎 𝑠−𝑎
𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡] = 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡
(𝑠−𝑎)2 +𝑏2 (𝑠−𝑎)2 +𝑏2
𝑏 𝑏
𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡] = 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡
(𝑠−𝑎)2 +𝑏2 (𝑠−𝑎)2 +𝑏2
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑎
𝐿[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡] = (𝑠+𝑎)2 −1
𝐿 [(𝑠+𝑎)2 ] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡
+𝑏2 +𝑏2
𝑏 𝑏
𝐿[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡] = (𝑠+𝑎)2 𝐿−1 [(𝑠+𝑎)2 ] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏
+𝑏2 +𝑏2
𝑏 𝑏
𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑏𝑡] = 𝐿−1 [ ] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑏𝑡
(𝑠−𝑎)2 −𝑏2 (𝑠−𝑎)2 −𝑏2
𝑠−𝑎 𝑠−𝑎
𝐿[𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑏𝑡] = (𝑠−𝑎)2 𝐿−1 [(𝑠−𝑎)2 2 ] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑏𝑡
−𝑏2 −𝑏
𝑠+𝑎 𝑠+𝑎
𝐿[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑏𝑡] = (𝑠+𝑎)2 −1
𝐿 [(𝑠+𝑎)2 ] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑏𝑡
−𝑏2 −𝑏2
𝑏 𝑏
𝐿[𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑏𝑡] = (𝑠+𝑎)2 𝐿−1 [(𝑠+𝑎)2 ] = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑏𝑡
−𝑏2 −𝑏2
Convolution Theorem:
Let f  t  and g  t  be piecewise continuous on  0,   and F  s   L  f  t  & G  s   L  g  t  .
t
Then, L1 F  s  G  s    f  u g  t  u  du.
0
Numerical Methods:
𝑥𝑘+1 −𝑥𝑘
Regula Falsi formula: 𝑥𝑘+2 = 𝑥𝑘 − for k = 0,1,2,………
𝑓(𝑥𝑘+1 )−𝑓(𝑥𝑘 )
Newton-Raphson formula:
𝑓(𝑥𝑛 )
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 − for n = 1, 2, 3, ……..
𝑓′(𝑥𝑛 )
Newton’s Forward Interpolation formula:

𝑝(𝑝−1) 𝑝(𝑝−1)(𝑝−2)
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∆𝑦0 + ∆2 𝑦0 + ∆3 𝑦0 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
2! 3!
𝑥−𝑥0
Where 𝑝 =
ℎ
Newton’s Backward Interpolation formula:

𝑝(𝑝 + 1) 2 𝑝(𝑝 + 1)(𝑝 + 2) 3
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦0 + 𝑝∇𝑦0 + ∇ 𝑦0 + ∇ 𝑦0 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
2! 3!
𝑥−𝑥𝑛
Where 𝑝 =
ℎ
15 | P a g e
Newton’s General Interpolation formula (Divided difference formula):
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦0 + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ] + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ]

+ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ] + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯
+ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 )[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , ⋯ ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 ]
Lagrange’s Interpolation formula:

(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 )
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥0 − 𝑥3 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥0 − 𝑥𝑛 ) 0
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 )
+ 𝑦
(𝑥1 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥3 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑛 ) 1
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥3 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 )
+ 𝑦
(𝑥2 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥2 − 𝑥3 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑛 ) 2
+⋯⋯⋯⋯
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 )
+ 𝑦
(𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥2 ) ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑥𝑛−1 ) 𝑛
Numerical Integration:
Trapezoidal Rule:
𝑥0 +𝑛ℎ
ℎ
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦 + 𝑦𝑛 ) + 2(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−1 )]
2 0
𝑥0
Simpson’s (1/3)rd rule:

𝑥0 +𝑛ℎ
ℎ
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑦 + 𝑦𝑛 ) + 4(𝑦1 + 𝑦3 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−1 ) + 2(𝑦2 + 𝑦4 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−2 )]
3 0
𝑥0
Simpson’s (3/8)th rule:

𝑥0 +𝑛ℎ
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥0
3ℎ
= [(𝑦0 + 𝑦𝑛 ) + 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦4 + 𝑦5 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−1 )
8
+ 2(𝑦3 + 𝑦6 + ⋯ + 𝑦𝑛−3 )]
16 | P a g e
Numerical methods for ODE’s:
Taylor’s series expansion about the point x  x0 .
 x  x0  y '  x  x0   x  x0 
2 3
y  x   y  x0    x0   y  x0 
''
 y '''  x0   ..
1! 2! 3!
Taylor’s series expansion about the point x  0
x ' x2 x3 x4
y  x   y  0  y  0   y ''  0   y '''  0   y ''''  0   .... Euler’s Method:
1! 2! 3! 4!
y nE1  y n  hf ( x n , y n ), n  0,1,2,3, 
Modified Euler’s Method:
h
yn 1  yn   f ( xn , yn )  f ( xn 1 , ynE1 )  , n  0,1, 2,3,
2
Runge–Kutta Method
 h k 
Step1: Find k1  hf ( x n , y n ) ; k 2  hf  xn  , y n  1 
 2 2
 h k 
k 3  hf  x n  , y n  2  ; k 4  hf x n  h, y n  k 3 
 2 2
Step2: Find y n 1  y n  k1  2k 2  2k 3  k 4 

1
6
Milne’s Method:
Step1: Find f1  f ( x1 , y1 ), f 2  f ( x 2 , y 2 ) and f 3  f ( x3 , y 3 ) .
Step2: Predictor Formula y 4( P )  y 0 

4h
2 f1  f 2  2 f 3 
3
Step3: Compute f 4  f ( x 4 , y 4( P ) )
Step4: Corrector Formula y4c  y2 

h
3

f 2  4 f1  f 4P 
17 | P a g e
Adams – Bashforth Method:
Step1: Find f 0  f  x0 , y0  , f1  f ( x1 , y1 ), f 2  f ( x 2 , y 2 ) and f 3  f ( x3 , y 3 ) .
h
Step2: Predictor Formula y4P  y3   55 f3  59 f 2  37 f1  9 f0 
24
Step3: Compute f 4  f ( x 4 , y 4( P ) )
Step4: : Corrector Formula y4c  y3 

h
24

f1  5 f 2  19 f1  9 f 4P 
Modular Arithmetics:
Set of Natural Numbers (N): {1, 2, 3, …..}
Set of Integers (I) = set of natural, negative naturals and zero: 𝑵 ∪ −𝑵 ∪ {𝟎}
Greatest common divisor: 𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒅 = 𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝒂, 𝒃)
Relative Primes: 𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒅 = 𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝟏
Division Algorithm: For integers a and b, with a > 0, there exist integers q and r
such that 𝒃 = 𝒒 ∙ 𝒂 + 𝒓 and 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝒂, where q: quotient, r: remainder
6. Euclidean Algorithm
b a b = q1 a + r1 r 1 = b – a q1
a r1 a = q2r1 + r2 r2 = a - q2r1
g = d∙ gcd (a, b) = ax + by with x and y integers
7. Modular and modular class: 𝒎/(𝒂 − 𝒃) then 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎), 𝟎 ≤ |𝒃| < 𝒎
𝒃 ≡ 𝒂(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎), 𝟎 ≤ |𝒂| < 𝒎
If 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎) then 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 𝒌 ∙ 𝒎
8. Properties of modular arithmetic:
 𝑎 ≡ 𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚), then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
 𝑎 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚), then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) then for any 𝑐, 𝑎 + 𝑐 ≡ (𝑏 + 𝑐)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
18 | P a g e
 If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) then for any 𝑐, 𝑎 + 𝑐 ≡ (𝑏 + 𝑐)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)

 If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) then for any 𝑐, 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 ≡ (𝑏 ∙ 𝑐)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
 If 𝑎𝑐 ≡ (𝑏𝑐)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = gcd(𝑚, 𝑐), then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚/𝑑)
 If 𝒂𝒄 ≡ (𝒃𝒄)(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎) and m is a prime number, then 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎)
 If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ≡ 𝑑(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚), then 𝑎 ± 𝑐 ≡ (𝑏 ± 𝑑)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)

 If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ≡ 𝑑(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚), then 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 ≡ (𝑏 ∙ 𝑑)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑚)
 If 𝒂𝒄 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄 ≡ 𝒅(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎), 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝒂𝒃 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎)
 If 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎), 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒏 ≡ 𝒃𝒏 (𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎)
 If 𝐠𝐜𝐝(𝒎, 𝒏) = 𝟏, 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒏), then 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝒏)
 If 𝒂𝒃 ≡ 𝟏(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒏), 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂
Linear Diophantine equation:
𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 = 𝒄, 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒅 = 𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝒂, 𝒃) 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒇 𝒅/𝒄

(i) has d congruent solutions and if x0 and y0 are primitive solutions,
𝒃
then 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 + (𝒅) 𝒕, 𝒚 = 𝒚𝟎 + (𝒂/𝒅)𝒕, for positive integer t
(ii) if d = 1 then it has unique solution
Remainder theorem:
𝒙 ≡ 𝒂𝒊 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝒊 ), 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 (𝒎𝒊 , 𝒎𝒋 ) = 𝟏, 𝒊 ≠ 𝒋
Procedure to apply remainder theorem

If 𝒎𝒊 , 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 are relatively prime
Then the solution of 𝒙𝒊 ≡ 𝒃𝒊 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝒊 ), 𝒊 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 3 is 𝒙 = ∑𝟑𝟏 𝒃𝒊 𝑴𝒊 𝒚𝒊
where, Mi = M / mi with 𝑴 = ∏𝟑𝟏 𝒎𝒊
Mi𝒚𝒊 ≡ 𝟏(𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝒊 ) where 𝒚𝒊 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 Mi under mod mi
11. Fermat’s little theorem:

If p is any prime and p ∤a, then 𝒂𝒑−𝟏 ≡ 1 (mod p) or 𝒂𝒑 ≡ a (mod p)
12. Euler’s Φ function:
If n is any composite number with prime factorization n = 𝒑𝟏 𝒎𝟏 X 𝒑𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝑿 … ;
then number of primes up to n is
𝟏 𝟏
𝚽(𝒏) = 𝒏 (𝟏 − 𝒑 ) (𝟏 − 𝒑 ) ⋯ ⋯
𝟏 𝟐
13. Wilson’s theorem: Prime p divides (p − 1)! + 1

19 | P a g e
14. RSA cryptosystem:

If p and q are large prime numbers and a is any integer then,
plain text M is encrypted to c by, 𝒄 ≡ 𝑴𝒆 (𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝒑𝒒)
The public key will be = (pq, e)
d the decryption key the inverse of e, then 𝒅 ∙ 𝒆 ≡ 𝟏(𝒎𝒐𝒅(𝒑 − 𝟏)(𝒒 − 𝟏))
then 𝑴 ≡ 𝒄𝒅 (𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒑𝒒).
Curvilinear Coordinates:
Curvilinear coordinates are often used to define the location or distribution of physical quantities
which may be scalars, vectors or tensors.
̂ , then
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒙(𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘)𝒊̂ + 𝒚(𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘)𝒋̂ + 𝒛(𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘)𝒌
If 𝑹
⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑹
(i) Tangent vectors to the u-curve, the v-curve and the w-curve are 𝝏𝒖 , 𝝏𝒗 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝏𝒘
respectively
⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑹 ⃗⃗⃗
𝝏𝑹
(ii) Scale factors 𝒉𝟏 = |𝝏𝒖| , 𝒉𝟐 = |𝝏𝒗 | 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝟑 = |𝝏𝒘|
(iii) Unit Tangent Vectors to the u-curve, the v-curve and the w-curve are
⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑅
( ) ( ) ( )
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝑇𝑢 = , 𝑇𝑣 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑤 = , respectively.
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3
Normal to the surfaces 𝒖 = 𝒖𝟎 , 𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘 = 𝒘𝟎 are

𝑇 𝑇 𝑇𝑤
∇𝑢 = ℎ𝑢 , ∇v = ℎ𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇w = respectively
1 2 ℎ3
Unit normal vectors to the surfaces 𝒖 = 𝒖𝟎 , 𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘 = 𝒘𝟎 are

∇𝑢 ∇v ∇w
𝑁𝑢 = |∇𝑢| , 𝑁𝑣 = |∇v| and 𝑁𝑤 = |∇w| , respectively
Polar Coordinates (𝒓, 𝜽) :
Coordinate transformations: 𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

𝜕(𝑥,𝑦)
Jacobian: =𝑟
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃)
(𝐴𝑟𝑐 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)2 : (𝑑𝑠)2 = (𝑑𝑟)2 + 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃)2
20 | P a g e
Cylindrical Coordinates (𝝆, 𝝋, 𝒛):

Coordinate transformations: 𝑥 = 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑, 𝑦 = 𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑, 𝑧 = 𝑧
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
Jacobian: =𝜌
𝜕(𝜌,𝜑,𝑧)
(𝐴𝑟𝑐 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)2 : (𝑑𝑠)2 = (𝑑𝜌)2 + 𝜌2 (𝑑𝜑)2 + (𝑑𝑧)2
Volume element: 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑧
Spherical Polar Coordinates (𝒓, 𝜽, 𝝋) :
Coordinate transformations: 𝑥 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑 , 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝜕(𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
Jacobian: = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃
𝜕(𝑟,𝜃,𝜑)
(𝐴𝑟𝑐 − 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)2 : (𝑑𝑠)2 = (𝑑𝑟)2 + 𝑟 2 (𝑑𝜃)2 + (𝑟 sin 𝜃)2 (𝑑𝜑)2
Volume element: 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑
21 | P a g e

Visvesvaraya Technological University Belagavi

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Visvesvaraya Technological University Belagavi

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Derivatives of some standard functions:

 log xdx  x log x  x, x  0  kdx  k x

 sec x tan x dx  sec x  cos ecx cot x dx   cos ecx

 sinh x dx  cosh x  cosh x dx  sinh x

 sec h x dx  tanh x  cos ech x dx   coth x

Bernoulli’s rule of integration:

Dot product of unit vectors iˆ  iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  1 and iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  iˆ  0

For any vectors 𝐴⃗ = (𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑏1 𝑗 + 𝑐1 𝑘), 𝐵

 Multiple angle formulae

Hyperbolic and Euler’s formulae

ei  cos   i sin 

Solid geometry formulae:

nth Derivatives of standard functions

D n  ax  b    m  m  1 m  2  ......  m  n  1 ax  b  .a n

D n sin  ax  b    a n sin  ax  b  n. / 2 

D n cos  ax  b    a n cos  ax  b  n. / 2 

Polar coordinates and polar curves:

Derivative of arc length:

Indeterminate Forms - L’Hospital’s rule:

y  x  y a  a  y a

Maclaurin’s Series at the point x  0

Euler’s theorem on homogeneous function and Corollary:

Area A=  dx dy - Cartesian form

Area A=  rdrd -Polar form

Volume V=  dx dydz - Cartesian form

Volume V=  zdx dy - by double integral

Angle between the surfaces

  n  1 n  3 n  5  .........1 

 cos xdx   sin xdx  

0 0   n  1 n  3 n  5  .........3 1 when n is odd

  m  1 m  3 .........  n  1 n  3 ......... 

0   m  1 m  3 .........  n  1 n  3 ......... other cases

Nature, Rank and Index of Quadratic forms:

Properties of the Laplace transform:

𝑓(𝑡) 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 𝐹(𝑠)

Transform of a Periodic Function: If f (t) is periodic with a period T , then

Transforms of the derivatives:

𝐿{𝑓′′ (𝑡)} = 𝑠 2 𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} − 𝑠 𝑓(0) − 𝑓′(0)

Inverse Laplace Transform:

Formulae on Shifting rule:

Newton’s Forward Interpolation formula:

Newton’s Backward Interpolation formula:

Newton’s General Interpolation formula (Divided difference formula):

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦0 + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 ] + (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )[𝑥0 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ]

Lagrange’s Interpolation formula:

Simpson’s (1/3)rd rule:

Simpson’s (3/8)th rule:

Numerical methods for ODE’s:

Taylor’s series expansion about the point x  x0 .

Taylor’s series expansion about the point x  0

Modified Euler’s Method:

Step2: Find y n 1  y n  k1  2k 2  2k 3  k 4 

Step1: Find f1  f ( x1 , y1 ), f 2  f ( x 2 , y 2 ) and f 3  f ( x3 , y 3 ) .

Step2: Predictor Formula y 4( P )  y 0 

Step4: Corrector Formula y4c  y2 

Adams – Bashforth Method:

Step1: Find f 0  f  x0 , y0  , f1  f ( x1 , y1 ), f 2  f ( x 2 , y 2 ) and f 3  f ( x3 , y 3 ) .

Step4: : Corrector Formula y4c  y3 

Greatest common divisor: 𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒅 = 𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝒂, 𝒃)

Relative Primes: 𝒈 𝒐𝒓 𝒅 = 𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝒂, 𝒃) = 𝟏

such that 𝒃 = 𝒒 ∙ 𝒂 + 𝒓 and 𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝒂, where q: quotient, r: remainder

7. Modular and modular class: 𝒎/(𝒂 − 𝒃) then 𝒂 ≡ 𝒃(𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒎), 𝟎 ≤ |𝒃| < 𝒎