Table of Contents

Networks:....................................................................................................................................................1
Surveying/Engineering:...............................................................................................................................1
Photogrammetric Control Network:........................................................................................................1
Dual-Purpose Geodetic/Photogrammetric Control Network:..................................................................1
Local and National control network:...........................................................................................................2
Traverse survey:..........................................................................................................................................2
Correct Co-ordinates and height for station:...............................................................................................3
Topographic Surveys:..................................................................................................................................5
Purpose:......................................................................................................................................................5
Map scales:..................................................................................................................................................6
Accuracy:.....................................................................................................................................................6
Datum:.....................................................................................................................................................6
Horizontal control:...................................................................................................................................6
Vertical control:.......................................................................................................................................6
Reference datum.....................................................................................................................................6
GPS:.............................................................................................................................................................7
Coding System:............................................................................................................................................7
Data exchange process:...............................................................................................................................7
Effective communication:............................................................................................................................7
Sustainable Topographic analysis:...............................................................................................................8
Total Station:...............................................................................................................................................9
Leveling:....................................................................................................................................................10
Total Stations:........................................................................................................................................10
Accuracy & Precision.................................................................................................................................11
Total station can be used.......................................................................................................................12
Accessories for Total Station:................................................................................................................12
Functions Performed By Total Stations..................................................................................................12
Errors.........................................................................................................................................................13
Types of Errors:......................................................................................................................................13
Analysis:.....................................................................................................................................................15
References.................................................................................................................................................17
Networks:
For a control network that fills in as the premise of a GIS, the familiar maxim about a chain and its most
vulnerable connection is proper: The actual GIS must be pretty much as precise as its control
organization. No measure of programming and equipment improvement can make up for control that
isn't precise enough for the necessary employments (MyNAP, 2001).

Surveying/Engineering:
This organization comprises of a progression of stations that are normally spread out in a matrix type
design (notwithstanding, a rectangular lattice isn't required). Numerous city and region organizations
pick this technique, utilizing sectionalized land corners as the station matrix. This strategy has been
utilized by numerous districts all through the U.S. also, has been demonstrated as a solid reference base
to help a GIS. Franklin County, Ohio, is perhaps the best illustration of this kind of organization in the
province of Ohio.

Another organization that falls in this classification is one that comprises of stations set either in city
parks and diversion zones or on the grounds of local area educational committee property. This sort of
geodetic station design has been utilized adequately by the City of Cincinnati, Ohio. This technique has a
few benefits, one of which is the improbability of aggravation to the station because of development.
Another is that the territories Wool energetic CIS Establishing a Geodetic Control Network January 1992
PLSO Conference 63 are effectively available and—contingent upon the area—are generally protected to
involve in any event, during evening perception meetings. This organization is extensively more
affordable to set up than the main kind of organization, however, the GPS part of the task is the same
(Stanoikovich, 2015).

Photogrammetric Control Network:

At the point when GPS control is expected to help an advanced planning project, orthophotography, or
both, control area is controlled by the requirements of the photogrammetric. Most photogrammetric
firms that perform completely insightful triangulation utilize an edge control design. This methodology
permits the photogrammetric to control the planning project from high-height photography, which
limits the measure of flat and vertical control required. This yields an adequate completely logical
triangulation result without decaying the precision of the task. A portion of the focuses are situated at
the edges of the undertaking (corresponding to the flight line of the airplane). Most of the stations,
notwithstanding, are set at the edges of the venture that contain the start and end of the flight lines.
This format offers the most minimal expense elective for getting photogrammetric control. Be that as it
may, it doesn't meet the necessities of a solid geodetic control establishment to help and keep a GIS in
the years ahead. Another downside to this organization is that the exactness expected to help the
planning bit of the GIS isn't adequate to help the looking over/designing requests of a GIS. Consequently
we will examine the third—and maybe the most adaptable—sort of control organization (Bossler, 2014).
Dual-Purpose Geodetic/Photogrammetric Control Network:
This sort of control network upholds an assortment of clients. Perhaps the best resource is that it meets
both the photogrammetric needs of a GIS and the higher-precision control needs of the looking
over/designing local area. This is particularly significant in light of the fact that the double reason sort of
organization can be essentially more affordable than the studying/designing sort, and expenses can
frequently be dispersed among the members in a GIS project. Exactness necessities for this sort of
organization ought not to be under 1 section for each 100,000 (this precision can be accomplished
effectively utilizing GPS methods). The organization design is spread out in much a similar way as the
photogrammetric control organization. Notwithstanding, in the double reason organization, inward
control is added as well as could be expected station combines or station azimuths. On the off chance
that lower-elevation photography is required for metropolitan/rural zones, extra control ought to be
spread out in these territories. This will address the issues of the photogrammetric while adding to the
thickness of the control design. On the off chance that just one size of photography is assigned, it is as
yet worthwhile to put inward organize control close to regions of development and development just as
little country networks while as yet keeping up some sort of rectangular matrix design (Petro, 2018).

Local and National control network:

• Active stations – PositioNZ, Geo Net, Private
• Used for datum associations with global reference edge, public and territorial twisting
checking, peril observing and general situating administrations.
• Passive control – 100K + marks – as yet being created
• Uses incorporate
• Local deformity observing, public stature organization, nearby change, cadastral level and
vertical organizations, computerized cadaster improvement, essential geospatial network
(CECW-EP, 2018).

Traverse survey:
Two cases must be recognized with this kind of navigate. In figure 5.1, a cross has been run from station
X (of known situation) to stations 1, 2, 3 and another known point Y. Cross X123Y is, subsequently, shut
at Y. This sort of cross is known as a connection, interfacing or shut course cross over. In figure 5.2, a
cross beginnings at station X and gets back to a similar point X through stations 1, 2 and 3. Station X can
be of known position or can have an expected position. For this situation the cross is known as a
polygon, circle or shut ring navigate since it closes back on itself. In the two sorts of shut navigate there
is an outer keep an eye on the perceptions since the crosses begin and famish on known or accepted
focuses (Ritchie, 2014).

Area

ABC =1/2 ac sin

Following steps:

 Select station positions as close as possible to the objects to be located.

 Mark the stations with stakes with tacks or with stone or concrete monuments set flush with the
ground with a precise point marked on the top by a chiseled cross, drilled hole, or bronze tablet.
  Make angle and distance measurements.
 Place signals at each station such as a range pole to be used for taping and angle measurement.

 Almost all surveying requires some calculations to reduce measurements into a more useful
form for determining distance, earthwork volumes, land areas, etc.
 A traverse is developed by measuring the distance and angles between points that found the
boundary of a site.
 A simple method that is useful for rough area estimates is a graphical method.
 In this method, the traverse is plotted to scale on graph paper, and the number of squares inside
the traverse are counted (Parker, 2018).

Correct Co-ordinates and height for station:

 If the angles do not close by a reasonable amount, mistakes in measuring have been made
 If an error of 1’ is made, the surveyor may correct one angle by 1’
 If an error of 2’ is made, the surveyor may correct two angles by 1’ each
 If an error of 3’ is made in a 12 sided traverse, the surveyor may correct each angle by 3’/12 or
15”
 The closure of a traverse is checked by computing the latitudes and departures of each of it
sides
 The latitude of a line is its projection on the north–south meridian
 The departure of a line is its projection on the east– west line
 A northeasterly bearing has: + latitude and + departure

Following statement:
 “If start at one corner of a closed traverse and walk its lines until you return to your starting
point, you will have walked as far north as you walked south and as Far East as you have walked
west”
 Therefore  latitudes = 0 and  departures = 0
 When latitudes are added together, the resulting error is called the error in latitudes (EL)
 The error resulting from adding departures together is called the error in departures (ED)
 If the measured bearings and distances are plotted on a sheet of paper, the figure will not close
because of EL and ED

Balancing:
 Balancing the latitudes and departures of a traverse attempts to obtain more probable values
for the locations of the corners of the traverse.
 A popular method for balancing errors is called the compass or the Bowditch rule
  The “Bowditch rule” as devised by Nathaniel Bowditch, surveyor, navigator and mathematician,
as a proposed solution to the problem of compass traverse adjustment, which was posed in the
American journal The Analyst in 1807.

Method:
 Angles and distances have same error
 Errors are accidental

Traverse surveys:
 To determine the positions of exiting boundary markers.
 To establish the positions of boundary lines.
 To determine the area encompassed within a boundary.
 To determine the positions of arbitrary points from which data may be obtained for preparing
various types of maps (i.e., establish control for map making).
 To establish ground control for photographic mapping.
 To establish control for gathering data regarding earthwork quantities in railroad highway,
utility, and other construction work.
 To establish control for locating railroads, highways, and other construction work.
A natural resource professional may need to run a boundary survey for a recreation site, research plot,
forest stand, or wildlife habitat area. The shape of the area may be a polygon with 3 or more sides. The
boundary may be located in the field as it is surveyed. Then the polygon is drawn on a map sheet with
the area in acres being determined for planning purposes. Open traverses may be run to establish
preliminary trail and road locations.
An open traverse cannot be checked for accuracy of field measurements as errors or mistakes are not
revealed. A closed traverse immediately affords a check on the accuracy of the measured angles. The
position closure gives an indication of the accuracy in measuring distances as well as azimuths (Fowler,
2017).

Topographic Surveys:
Topographic surveys have various definitions by different agencies and publications. These may include
everything from photogrammetric mapping to hydrographic surveys. The reconnaissance topographic
surveys described below relate to smaller scale preliminary mapping performed in advance of
engineering and design, and are often called preliminary surveys. Following are the important
considerations in connection with reconnaissance topographic surveys (CECW-CE, 2007)

Purpose:
The reconnaissance survey is the basis for a general study or a decision as to the construction suitability
of areas. It may also be used for preliminary site layouts. Reconnaissance surveys are useful in showing
the general location of roads, building areas, and utilities; and to establish an acceptable site layout
which must be approved by authorized officers before detailed layout plans can be made. Such surveys
also enable the proper selection of those areas, relatively limited in extent, which should be covered by
the more time-consuming and costly detailed topographic surveys. In some instances the US Geological
Survey (USGS) topographic quadrangle sheets may be enlarged and used for this purpose. The success of
such use will be dependent upon the contour interval, whether the USGS maps are of recent date, the
character of the terrain, and the nature of the project.
Map scales:
Dependent upon the size and shape of the area and upon the nature of the terrain, i.e., density of
culture and steepness of slope, reconnaissance surveys may be at scales varying from 1 inch = 400 ft to 1
inch = 1,000 ft. In cases where the project is of limited size, a scale of 1 inch = 200 ft may be used.
Contour intervals of either five feet or ten feet may be used. The five-foot interval is the more
serviceable and should be used except where steepness of slope makes the ten-foot interval advisable.
When areas contain both flat and very steep slopes a ten-foot interval may be adopted as the contour
interval of the map. On the flat areas, one-half interval contour (e.g., five foot) may be shown,
discontinuing them wherever the slopes become steep or uniform. Contours having different intervals
should not be shown by the same symbol on the same map. In extremely flat areas, a one- or two-foot
contour interval may be required to adequately represent the terrain.

Accuracy:
Extreme accuracy of position is not necessary and minutiae of detail are not desirable. The map should
show all pertinent physical features such as roads, railroads, streams, cleared and wooded areas,
houses, bridges, cemeteries, orchards, lakes, ponds, and fence lines. Elevations should be shown by
contours and spot elevations at road intersections, bridges, water surfaces, tops of summits and
bottoms of depressions.

Datum:
When practical and feasible, it is desirable for these surveys to be referenced to an established NSRS
datum, rather than some arbitrary grid system.

Horizontal control:
There should be established a system of monumental horizontal control originating from and closing
upon existing NSRS control points. Since this control should also serve the needs of subsequent site
layouts and utility maps, the selection of its position and frequency must give due weight to these
needs. In areas where there is to be intensive development, the lines of control circuits should ideally
not be more than 2,000 to 2,500 feet apart in one direction, but may be of any convenient dimension in
the other direction. Control points should generally not be more than 800 to 1000 feet apart along the
line of the circuit and should be inevasible. In order to serve property survey needs, the outside control
circuits should have control points within 300 or 400 feet of probable property boundary corners.
Where topography is to be taken by plane table, a sheet layout should first be made and the control
circuits selected near two sheet borders so that the line may be planted on both sheets.

Vertical control:
Vertical control should consist of levels run in circuits originating from and closing upon Federal
Government benchmarks. The closure error of these circuits should be predicated on the character and
scope of construction involved. The elevation of each traverse station monument should be determined.
Other permanent benchmarks as deemed necessary should be set.

Reference datum
When practical and feasible, it is desirable for these surveys to be referenced to an established NSRS
datum, rather than some arbitrary grid or vertical reference system.
GPS:
The Global Positioning System (GPS) employs trilateration to calculate the coordinates of positions at or
near the Earth's surface. Trilateration refers to the trigonometric law by which the interior angles of a
triangle can be determined if the lengths of all three triangle sides are known. GPS extends this principle
to three dimensions.
A GPS receiver can fix its latitude and longitude by calculating its distance from three or more Earth-
orbiting satellites, whose positions in space and time are known. If four or more satellites are within the
receiver's "horizon," the receiver can also calculate its elevation and even its velocity. The U.S.
Department of Defense created the Global Positioning System as an aid to navigation. Since it was
declared fully operational in 1994, GPS positioning has been used for everything from tracking delivery
vehicles, to tracking the minute movements of the tectonic plates that make up the Earth's crust, to
tracking the movements of human beings. In addition to the so-called user segment made up of the GPS
receivers and people who use them to measure positions, the system consists of two other components:
a space segment and a control segment. It took about $10 billion to build over 16 years (BIM, 2018).
Russia maintains a similar positioning satellite system called GLONASS. Member nations of the European
Union are in the process of deploying a comparable system of their own, called Galileo. The first
experimental GIOVE-A satellite began transmitting Galileo signals in January 2006. The goal of the
Galileo project is a constellation of 30 navigation satellites by 2020. If the engineers and politicians
succeed in making Galileo, GLONASS, and the U.S. Global Positioning System interoperable, as currently
seems likely, the result will be a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) that provides more than
twice the signal-in-space resource that is available with GPS alone. The Chinese began work on their
own system, called Beidou, in 2000. At the end of 2011, they had ten satellites in orbit, serving just
China, with the goal being a global system of 35 satellites by 2020 (Penn, 2016).

Coding System:
The United Nations Common Coding System (UNCCS) is a generic, 6-digit coding system designed to
facilitate electronic commerce, simplify procurement, and provide opportunities for cost-reduction for
purchasers and suppliers. It is the only system developed specifically for the needs of purchasers and
suppliers, and is one of the few coding systems that covers both goods and services. In order to supply
to the UN system, businesses and governments must use UNCCS as their coding system. While other
coding systems do not "speak" to each other because of different structures, UNCCS ensures worldwide
acceptance by correlating with major international classification systems. Correlation tables are
available (against payment) (Paul, 2018).

Data exchange process:

Data exchange is the process of taking data structured under a source schema and transforming it into
a target schema, so that the target data is an accurate representation of the source data. Data exchange
allows data to be shared between different computer programs.
It is similar to the related concept of data integration except that data is actually restructured (with
possible loss of content) in data exchange. There may be no way to transform an instance given all of
the constraints. Conversely, there may be numerous ways to transform the instance (possibly infinitely
many), in which case a "best" choice of solutions has to be identified and justified (SAP, 2019).

Effective communication:
Audience. 
Who needs to be involved to achieve the desired outcome? What action needs to be taken by that
individual or group, or the entire organization? If you consider the critical people and what they need to
think, feel or do to achieve the outcome, you’ll have a clear focus for your communication planning.
Messages. 
To achieve the desired outcome, you need messages that will inspire the defined audience to take the
necessary action. What information might motivate them to act? Do they need to know more about a
problem, a competitive challenge or an opportunity? This information becomes the content for your
core messages.
Tactics. 
How should your target audience be reached with your messages? The best tactics will depend on the
type, size and reach of the audience and the way they prefer to get their information. Important
communications should be delivered through multiple channels.
Measurement. 
What does success look like? The measurement you choose should link back to your desired outcome. It
also may include measures to check communication effectiveness, such as media metrics, site visits, or
numbers of people reached through meetings or other communication tactics (GROSSMAN, 2020).

Sustainable Topographic analysis:

Topography is the study of the shape and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area refers to
the surface shapes and features on the ground and their arrangement. Traditional definitions require a
topographic map to show both natural and man-made features.
A topographic survey gathers data about the natural and man-made features of the land, as well as its
terrain. Permanent features such as buildings, fences, trees and streams accurately define the ground
and its boundaries. Land contours and spot levels show the elevation of the terrain. Topographic maps
are used by architects, engineers, building contractors and others to accurately visualize their sites and
help bring forward development.
Depending on the purpose of the survey and the desired output, there are a few types of topographical
surveys to choose from, including a general land survey, boundary survey, and survey for construction
projects. Also, depending on the scale of the map that is required and location of the site, for instance
whether it’s an urban or rural area, a survey can be classified by accuracy level.
A typical topographical survey process includes:
 Gathering information, i.e. the geographical area to be included, the level of detail, accuracy and
data output
 Planning the time schedule and pricing
 Gathering survey data on site
 Processing data and preparing the final survey output
 Internal quality assurance by a senior member of the staff
 Delivery of the final survey output to the client
The duration of a topographic survey process is dependent on the size of the area to be covered and the
complexity of the terrain being surveyed. Once we have calculated the time it will take, a programmer of
works is agreed with the client. This could include additional resources to meet a particular project
programmer milestone or other deadline.
Normally, a topographic survey is used as a basis for design decisions. An architect or consulting
engineer will need an accurate digital plan of their site area to produce good design and construction
drawings. The survey and data can also be used for other purposes, including new housing
developments, new road layouts, land registry submissions or volumetric calculations.
Robotic total station instruments are generally employed to detail features on-site. All survey points are
measured by the instrument with an onboard feature code list. For example, the surveyor can string
survey points to create an outline of a building with a specific code. GPS and laser scanning equipment
can also be used, subject to the site specification and terrain.
A topographic survey can be presented in multiple formats; the output is subject to the client’s need.
For example, if clients are submitting a survey for Land Registry purposes, then specific scales and
outputs are required for compliance. However, the standard output is AutoCAD dwg, and 3D data can
also be presented in Revit.
Architects require accurate digital data of their client’s site to properly design their commissions, with
the level of detail or specification tailored to the purpose of the survey.
A thorough survey of all the features is critical for planning, design and construction. Any features that
are not surveyed can cause costly delays at any stage of the development.
Costs are based on the time we need to spend on the project. The time is calculated on the extent of the
site area, terrain and visibility. The specification will also itemize the features we need to survey, which
is also considered in our calculation.
We have a wide range of customers who use our services, ranging from architects, engineers and
contractors, to housebuilders and private individuals. We have a strong reputation in the industry for
providing accurate data on time and on budget. Clients trust us to deliver (MacIntyre, 2019).
Measurements for topographic surveys are done either with a surveying-quality GPS unit, or with an
electronic EDM instrument. The results of the topographic survey are presented as contour lines on a
site map, and can be enhanced by computer software to provide interactive views. Partner’s CAD
specialists are able to input this data to model how the topography may change through planned
improvements.
Clients can use topographic surveys to determine and plan features such as drainage ditches, grading, or
other features, using the natural landscape as the basis for such improvements. Engaging a professional
surveyor to conduct a topographic survey prior to real estate transaction or the commencement or a
construction project will ensure that the land’s features will be suitable for its intended use. In addition,
a topographic survey can provide valuable insight in to how a site’s previous or current use how affected
the land, enabling better planning for future use (Lewis, 2019).

Total Station:
Make sure the batteries are charged, one is installed in the door on the left side. The battery
compartment will hold different size batteries, type GEB 211 Li Ion 7.4V. Probably should make sure a
flash drive is on the right side.

 Compartment for USB memory stick & USB cable ports

 Bluetooth antenna
 Alignment sight
 Detachable carrying handle
 Telescope with integrated EDM (electronic distance meter)
 Vertical control knob g) On/Off key h) Switch key – we probably don’t need to use this
• Top: laser pointer toggle
• Bottom: switch between Measure/record, All in 1, and Measure
 Horizontal control knob
 Optional second keyboard (not on our unit)
 Telescope focusing ring
  Eyepiece; focusing gratitude
 Battery holder
 Serial interface
 Foot screw
 Display
 Keyboard

Leveling:
Set up the tripod, either over a known point, or anywhere

1. If you are starting from scratch and don’t care about getting things into standard coordinates, it
doesn’t matter.
2. If you want to tie to benchmarks, they will just need to be visible.
3. If you can set up on a benchmark, this is the most accurate method:
a. Setup the tripod itself over the point, getting it somewhat close to level.
b. Use the plummet (weight on a string) to position the tripod over the point. The plummet
string can go through the 5/8" screw.

4. Carefully attach the total station on the 5/8” screw mount.

5. Close the case to keep out moisture and stuff.
6. Rotate the instruments that two leveling screws are facing you and one at the back, with the
control panel thus parallel to those two front screws, as shown in the picture
7. Rotate the instruments that two leveling screws are facing you and one at the back, with the
control panel thus parallel to those two front screws, as shown in the picture
8. Roughly level the instrument using the circular level
a. For side-to-side leveling, turn both leveling screws on the parallel in opposite directions,
by turning them both in or both out.
b. For front-to-back leveling, turn the single screw at the back.
9. Turn on the instrument with the red button on the right. Note the color of the EDM light: for
prism use it should be white.
10. If you are mounting over a benchmark, you will need to make sure you in the right place, by
checking the downward-looking red laser pointer, which turns on when you select Level in the
interface. You may be able to move the instrument around on the tripod surface by loosening
the screw a bit and repositioning it over the benchmark. You may also have to move the tripod,
and redo the rough leveling.
11. You’ll get to a leveling window, and you can follow its directions with the leveling screws. When
all three points are checked, it’s leveled.
Total Stations:
The basic properties are unsurpassed range, speed and accuracy of measurements. Total stations are
developed in view of the maximal convenience of work of the user. High-efficiency electronic
tachometers are intended for the decision
it has the broad audience for sole of industrial problems.

Angles and distances are measured from the total station to points under survey, and the coordinates
(X, Y, and Z or northing, easting and elevation) of surveyed points relative to the total station position
are calculated using trigonometry and triangulation.
Data can be downloaded from the total station to a computer and application software used to compute
results and generate a map of the surveyed area.

A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying. It is also used by

archaeologists to record excavations as well as by police, crime scene investigators, private accident
Reconstructionist and insurance companies to take measurements of scenes. The total station is an
electronic theodolite (transit) integrated with an electronic distance meter (EDM), plus internal data
storage and/or external data collector.

The purpose of any survey is to prepare maps, control points formed a basic requirement for the
preparation of these maps.

There are several numbers of methods like traverse, triangulation etc., to provide these control points.

Whatever the method the provision of control points, includes the measurement of two entities
(Distance and Angle).

Again, distance can be measured by using various instruments like chain, tape.

Linear Tap.

Gunter’s chain (20m and 30m).

Steel band (20m and 30m).

Inver tap.

Hunter Short Base (80m).

Electronic Distance Measurement Instruments, Total station and GPS.

Angle can be measured by using a THEODOLITE.

Once distance and angular measurement is over computation is performed to provide the control
points.  A combination of all the three results in a powerful instrument called TOTAL STATION. Hence,
the 

TOTAL STATION is an instrument which consists of the following:

 Distance measuring instrument (EDM).

 An angle measuring instrument (Theodolite).
 A simple microprocessor.

Accuracy & Precision

I. Precision is the reproducibility of the measurement.
II. Accuracy is how close the measured position is to the actual location

Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or infrared carrier signal,

generated by a small solid-state emitter within the instrument’s optical path, and reflected by a prism
reflector or the object under survey. The modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and
interpreted by the onboard computer in the total station. The distance is determined by emitting and
receiving multiple frequencies, and determining the integer number of wavelengths to the target for
each frequency. Most total stations use purpose-built glass Porto prism reflectors for the EDM signal,
and can measure distances to a few kilometers. Reflector less total stations can measure distances to
any object that is reasonably light in color, to a few hundred meters.

Principle:
Given the co-ordinate of the instrument position and bearing of a backward station the co-ordinates of
any other point can be computed.
Total station can be used
 When two points are given.
 When only one co-ordinate is given. In this case the coordinate of the back station is determined
by any suitable method.
 When no co-ordinates were given in which case arbitrary system of coordinates can be used.
 These devices, also called electronic Tachometers, can automatically measure horizontal and
vertical angles as well as slope distances from a single set up. From these data they can
instantaneously compute horizontal and vertical distance components, elevations, and
coordinates, and display the results on LCD. They can also store the data, either on board or in
external data collectors. If the coordinates of the occupied station and a reference azimuth are
input to the system, the coordinates of the sighted point are immediately obtained. This
information can be directly stored in an automatic data collector, thereby eliminating manual
recording.  These instruments are of tremendous value in all types of surveying. Total Stations
offer many advantages for almost all types of surveying.  They are used for topographic,
Hydrographic, cadastral, project and construction surveys.

Accessories for Total Station:

With approximately more than 40 different models are available to choose, they are currently the
dominant instrument in surveying.
The EDM instrument component installed in a Total Station is relatively small but still has distance
ranges adequate for most work.  Lengths up to about 2 km can be measured with a single prism, and up
to about 6 to 7 km with triple prism.
The angle resolution of available Total Stations varies from as low as a half-second for precise
instruments suitable for control surveys, up to 20″ for instruments made specifically for construction
stakeout.
Functions Performed By Total Stations
Total Stations, with their microprocessors, can perform a variety of functions and
computations, depending on how they are programmed. The capabilities vary with different
instruments, but some standard computations include (Singh, 2019):

1. Averaging multiple angle and distance measurements.

2. Correcting electronically measured distances from prism constant, atmospheric

pressure, and temperature.

3. Making curvature and refraction corrections to elevations determine by

trigonometric levelling.
 4. Reducing slope distances to their horizontal and vertical components.

5. Calculating point elevations from the vertical distance components (supplemented

with keyboard input of instrument and reflector heights).

6. Computing coordinates of survey points from horizontal angle and horizontal

distance.

a. Averages multiple angle measurements.

b. Averages multiple distance measurements.

c. Computes horizontal and vertical distances.

d. Corrections for temp, pressure and humidity.

e. Computes inverses, polar, and resections.

f. Computes X, Y and Z coordinate

Errors
Errors in surveying may arise from three main sources:

1. Instrumental:
Surveying error may arise due to imperfection or faulty adjustment of the instrument with
which measurement is being taken. For example, a tape may be too long or an angle
measuring instrument may be out of adjustment. Such errors are known as instrumental
errors.
Personal:
Error may also arise due to want of perfection of human sight in observing and of touch in
manipulating instruments. For example, an error may be there in taking the level reading or
reading and angle on the circle of a theodolite. Such errors are known as personal errors.
Natural:
Error in surveying may also be due to variations in natural phenomena such as temperature,
humidity, gravity, wind, refraction and magnetic declination. If they are not properly
observed while taking measurements, the results will be incorrect. For example, a tape may
be 20 meters at 200C but its length will change if the field temperature is different.

Types of Errors:
Ordinary errors in surveying met with in all classes of survey work may be classified as
(SHANMUKHA, 2016):
  Mistakes
 Accidental errors
 Systematic or cumulative errors
 Compensating errors
Mistakes:
Mistakes are errors which arise from inattention, inexperience, carelessness and poor judgment
or confusion in the mind of the observer. They do not follow any mathematical rule (law of
probability) and may be large or small, positive or negative. They cannot be measured.
However, they can be detected by repeating the whole operation. If a mistake is undetected, it
produces a serious effect upon the final result. Hence, every value to be recorded in the field
must be checked by some independent field observation. The following are the examples of
mistakes:
I. Erroneous recording, e.g. writing 69 in place of 96
II. Counting 8 for 3
III. Forgetting once chain length
IV. Making mistakes in using a calculator
Accidental Errors:
 Surveying errors can occur due to unavoidable circumstances like variations in atmospheric
conditions which are entirely beyond the control of the observer. Errors in surveying due to
imperfection in measuring instruments and even imperfection of eyesight fall in this category.
They may be positive and may change sign. They cannot be accounted for.
Systematic or Cumulative Errors:
A deliberate or combined mistake is a blunder that, under similar conditions, will consistently be of a
similar size and sign. An orderly mistake consistently follows some unequivocal numerical or actual law
and adjustment can be resolved and applied. Such blunders are of steady character and are viewed as
certain or negative to the extent that they make the outcome incredible or little. Their impact is, in this
way, aggregate. For instance, if a tape is P cm short and on the off chance that it is extended N times,
the absolute mistake in the estimation of the length will be P'N cm

The efficient blunders may emerge because of (I) varieties of temperature, mugginess, pressure, current
speed, curve, refraction, and so on and (ii) flawed setting or inappropriate leveling of any instrument
and individual vision of a person. Coming up next are the models:

1. Faulty arrangement of a line

2. An instrument isn't leveled as expected

3. An instrument isn't changed as expected

In the event that undetected, deliberate blunders are intense. Hence, (1) all studying gear should be
planned and utilized so that, at whatever point conceivable, precise mistakes will be consequently
dispensed with, and (2) all efficient blunders that can't be without a doubt wiped out by this implies
should be assessed and their relationship to the conditions that cause them should be resolved.
Compensating Errors:
This sort or reviewing blunder will in general happen in the two ways, for example the blunder may
some of the time will in general be positive and at times negative consequently repaying one another.
They tend now and then on way and at times in the other, for example they are similarly liable to make
the obvious outcome huge or little. Coming up next are a couple of models:

 The error among chain and tape estimations when both are utilized at the same time

 Inaccuracy in stamping chain lengths on the ground

 Inaccurate focusing

 Inaccurate division of an item

 They submit to the laws of possibility and hence, should be dealt with as indicated by the
numerical laws of likelihood (Zeiske, 2019).

The Client, Employer or Promoter is the individual, organization or government office who requires the
specific plan (the Works) to be attempted and funds the task. Frequently, the Employer has no designing
information and in this manner commissions an Engineer (conceivably a firm of Consulting Engineers or
the City Engineer of a Local Authority) to give the expert mastery. A proper agreement is ordinarily
settled between these two gatherings. It is the duty of the Engineer to research the achievability of the
proposed project, to embrace site examination and plan different answers for the Employer's thought.
At last, the Engineer embraces the essential figuring’s and readies the drawings, particulars and amounts
for the picked conspire. The Engineer additionally examines the probably expenses and developer for
the task. The computations and drawings give the structure and nature of development of the Works.
The amounts are utilized as a methods for assessing the estimation of the task, for welcoming serious
tenders for the venture and, at last, as a reason for installment as the work is executed. The details
depict the base satisfactory principles of materials and workmanship remembered for the task. The
developer recognizes the general time for fruition of the venture.

Analysis:
The acquired outcomes from this proposal will ideally improve the information about exactness,
accuracy and time utilization of the three techniques utilized (TS, GPS and TLS). One can separate which
instrument ought to be utilized for which explicit application relying upon the introduced results. For
additional improvement of exactness, the accompanying proposals are sent:

• Total station (Leica 1201) ought to be adjusted at some customary spans. Since there was issue
in the level air pockets; one on the tribrach and the other on the absolute station couldn't be leveled
simultaneously. In this way, when adjusted the instrument, it will improve the degree of exactness.

• It can be accomplished better precision by adjusting those instruments before the estimation
crusade. Applications which require high exactness in order to fill in as reference esteem, for example,
control point foundations, I prescribe to utilize complete station rather than GPS.
• It was extremely hard to deal with the field estimation alone, uniquely setting up the reference
network has been a major issue. There will be a chance of happening gross mistakes and along these
lines, I suggest working in bunch

Today absolute station (TS), GPS and earthbound laser scanner (TLS) are utilized for some undertakings
inside various applications, for instance, geodesy, designing, compositional and mining overviews and
documentation of social legacy with various precision level contingent upon the required prerequisites.
The motivation behind this theory work was to assess and analyze exactness, accuracy and time
consumption of three looking over techniques (TS, GPS and TLS). The examination was made between
TS versus GPS RTK on the reference organization and TS versus TLS on the façade of L structure, KTH
grounds, Stockholm, Sweden. To achieve the goals of the postulation, three significant assignments have
been performed. 1. An organization of 14 control focuses was set up with high exactness (l mm) with all
out station and filled in as a source of perspective or set up esteem. 2. On a similar organization, RTK
strategy was performed to contrast the outcome and that of complete station. 3. At last, by scanning the
objectives on the façade of the L structure and estimating a similar objective focuses with the all-out
station, correlation has been made between the removed directions of the façade and the directions
estimated by the absolute station. In each assignment of the estimation, time exhausted was recorded
and looked at (see Table 5.13 and Table 5.13) independently for TS versus GPS and TS versus TLS
techniques individually. At that point, to assess the exactness and precision of the RTK on the reference
organization and TLS and TS on the façade estimations were taken multiple times. In view of the
outcomes got, exactness of the reference network decided with 1 mm standard deviation both for flat
and vertical directions for all focuses. This outcome has been accomplished due to the round
estimations and two face estimations with the absolute station. On a similar control points of the
organization, RTK technique was performed and as per the outcome acquired, the standard deviations
are under 8 mm in level and they arrive at 1.5 cm in vertical facilitate, which demonstrates that the
rehashed estimations were very near one another. The precision of the RTK estimations on the
organization, which is communicated by RMS, are under 9 mm in even and they arrive at 2.2 cm in
vertical directions. Accuracy of the TS estimation on the façade of L structure has been resolved with
greatest standard deviation of 8 mm (point BW10) in flat and 4 mm (point WM3) in vertical directions.
On similar marks of the façade, facilitates removed from the TLS estimation has been resolved with
greatest standard deviation of 1.6 cm (point WM3) and 1.2 cm (point BW11) in level and vertical
arranges separately. However, the excess focuses were beneath this level. At that point the precision of
the TLS estimations was resolved with greatest RMS of 4 mm (point WM3) in level and 7 mm (BW11) in
vertical directions. - 51-Finally, the time use summed up as additional time (82 min) was devoured for TS
estimation in the previous strategy, yet practically comparative time (38 min for TS and 32 min for TLS)
was burned-through in the last case. To assess the nature of the estimation, total estimation of each
arrange contrast between every strategy ought not be surpass, which restricts the mistakes not to be
past sure breaking point by duplicating their sigma contrasts with consistent k (2.776). In view of this
quality control measure, over 95% of the complete outcome has accomplished the prerequisite. This can
be deciphered as qualities which existed in as far as possible (stretch breaking point), considered as
acknowledged qualities. However, values out of as far as possible considered as hazard esteems, which
may contain net blunders. There was one point which was out of as far as possible and was dismissed. In
this manner, it tends to be presumed that there were no gross blunders in the estimation; on the
grounds that the estimations were made definitely and precisely. For example: when estimating utilizing
all out station, two face estimations was taken to kill a few mistakes, for example, collimation pivot
blunders, shifting hub blunders, and so forth When utilizing GPS RTK technique, little mount was utilized
to raise the wanderer vertical. At first, I expected to accomplish precision in mm level. Be that as it may,
because of certain mistakes (like focusing blunder, instrumental mistake, satellite sign obstacle), a few
outcomes have been strayed in to cm level (Chekole, 2014).

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