2WAB0 BBK Week 2-1 Annotated

Calculus week 2
Geometry: trigonometry, vectors, lines and planes
Sander Dommers
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science

0.4 Periodic functions
Definition (Periodic function)

f : R → R is periodic with period T if f (x + T) = f (x) for all x
2 Calculus week 2

y = f (x)
x
T T T
2 Calculus week 2

y = f (x)
x
T T T
If f is periodic with period T then f is also periodic with e.g. period 2T

=⇒ Smallest possible T > 0 is called the fundamental period
2 Calculus week 2
0.4 Sine and cosine
1 • Circle with center (0, 0) and radius 1

• All points (x, y) for which x2 + y 2 = 1
−1 1
−1
3 Calculus week 2
0.4 Sine and cosine

y P
• Let P = (x, y) be an arbitrary point on
α the circle
−1 x 1
O
• Let α be the (counter-clockwise) angle
of OP with the positive x-axis
−1
3 Calculus week 2
0.4 Sine and cosine

y P
• Let P = (x, y) be an arbitrary point on
α the circle
−1 x 1
O
• Let α be the (counter-clockwise) angle
of OP with the positive x-axis
−1
Definition (Sine and cosine)
cos(α) := x
sin(α) := y
3 Calculus week 2
0.4 Angles
Note that we usually measure angles in radians
Angle in degrees 0 30 45 60 90 135 180 270 360
Angle in radians 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2 3π/4 π 3π/2 2π
y P
α
−1 O x 1
−1
4 Calculus week 2
0.4 Angles
5 Calculus week 2
0.4 Angles
Try to remember this table
α 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2

1
√ 1
√ 1
√ 1
√ 1
√
sin(α) 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4
1
√ 1
√ 1
√ 1
√ 1
√
cos(α) 2 4 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 0
6 Calculus week 2
0.4 Angles
Try to remember this table
α 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2

1
√ 1
√ 1
√ 1
√ 1
√
sin(α) 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4
1
√ 1
√ 1
√ 1
√ 1
√
cos(α) 2 4 2 3 2 2 2 1 2 0
So that you find these values
α 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2

1 1
√ 1
√
sin(α) 0 2 2 2 2 3 1
1
√ 1
√ 1
cos(α) 1 2 3 2 2 2 0
6 Calculus week 2
0.4 Angles
Example
1
Find all x with sin(2x) = 2
7 Calculus week 2
0.4 Graphs of sine and cosine
Red: X := (α, x) = (α, cos(α)) Green: Y := (α, y) = (α, sin(α))
8 Calculus week 2
0.4 Graphs of sine and cosine
y = sin(x)
0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π
y = cos(x)
9 Calculus week 2
0.4 Properties of sine and cosine
• Periodicity: cos(α + 2π) = cos(α), sin(α + 2π) = sin(α)
10 Calculus week 2
• P is on the unit circle, so x2 + y 2 = 1. Hence: cos2 (α) + sin2 (α) = 1
10 Calculus week 2
• P is on the unit circle, so x2 + y 2 = 1. Hence: cos2 (α) + sin2 (α) = 1

• Negative angle: −α
1
x-coordinate Q = x-coordinate P,
P so cos(−α) = cos(α)
α
−1 O −α 1
y-coordinate Q = − y-coordinate P,
Q so sin(−α) = − sin(α)
−1
10 Calculus week 2
• Complement: π
2 −α
y =x
1
Q x-coordinate P = y-coordinate Q,
so cos(α) = sin( π2 − α)
P
−1 O 1
y-coordinate P = x-coordinate Q,
so sin(α) = cos( π2 − α)
−1
11 Calculus week 2
0.4 Tangent function
Definition (Tangent)
sin(x)
tan(x) :=
cos(x)
y y = tan(x)
x = − 32 π x = − 21 π x = 12 π x = 32 π
12 Calculus week 2
0.4 Tangent function Properties:
sin(−x) − sin(x)
• tan(−x) = = = − tan(x)
cos(−x) cos(x)
sin(x)
tan(x) :=
cos(x)
y y = tan(x)
x = − 32 π x = − 21 π x = 12 π x = 32 π
12 Calculus week 2
• tan(−x) = = = − tan(x)
cos(−x) cos(x)
• tan(x) = 0 if sin(x) = 0, so for x = kπ, k ∈ Z
sin(x)
tan(x) :=
cos(x)
y y = tan(x)
x = − 32 π x = − 21 π x = 12 π x = 32 π
12 Calculus week 2
• tan(−x) = = = − tan(x)
cos(−x) cos(x)
• tan(x) = 0 if sin(x) = 0, so for x = kπ, k ∈ Z
sin(x) • tan(x) is undefined if cos(x) = 0,
tan(x) :=
cos(x) so for x = π/2 + kπ, k ∈ Z
y y = tan(x)
x = − 32 π x = − 21 π x = 12 π x = 32 π
12 Calculus week 2
0.4 Other trigonometric functions
In Definition 4.2 the cotangent, secant and cosecant are introduced
We will not use these terms
For completeness:
1 cos(x) 1 1
cot(x) = = sec(x) = csc(x) =
tan(x) sin(x) cos(x) sin(x)
13 Calculus week 2
0.4 Trigonometric identities
Theorem
sin(α + β) = sin(α) cos(β) + cos(α) sin(β)
cos(α + β) = cos(α) cos(β) − sin(α) sin(β)
14 Calculus week 2
Theorem
Corollary (Take β = −γ)

sin(α − γ) = sin(α) cos(γ) − cos(α) sin(γ)
cos(α − γ) = cos(α) cos(γ) + sin(α) sin(γ)
14 Calculus week 2
Theorem
Corollary (Take β = −γ)

sin(α − γ) = sin(α) cos(γ) − cos(α) sin(γ)
cos(α − γ) = cos(α) cos(γ) + sin(α) sin(γ)
Corollary (Take β = α)
sin(2α) = 2 sin(α) cos(α)
cos(2α) = cos2 (α) − sin2 (α) = 1 − 2 sin2 (α) = 2 cos2 (α) − 1
14 Calculus week 2
Example
Show that
1 1
cos2 (α) = + cos(2α)
2 2
1 1
sin2 (α) = − cos(2α)
2 2
15 Calculus week 2
Example
Compute
7π

cos
6
16 Calculus week 2
0.4 Finding side of a triangle
hypotenuse opposite side
α
adjacent side
SOH CAH TOA

opposite side adjacent side opposite side
sin(α) = cos(α) = tan(α) =
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent side
17 Calculus week 2
0.4 Amplitude, period and frequency
Consider the function
f (x) = A sin(c · x)
We say
• |A| is the amplitude
• p is the period 2π/|c|
• f is the frequency 1/p = |c|/2π
18 Calculus week 2
10 Landing an airplane
Compensating for crosswind
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D52J63J5j1I
19 Calculus week 2
10 Landing an airplane
Source: Gizmodo.com
20 Calculus week 2
10.1 Vectors in the plane
Some physical quantities need both a size and a direction
Examples: Velocity, acceleration, force
In math: vectors
In 2D:
a2 a
a1
21 Calculus week 2
In math: vectors

In 2D: a=
a1
is a vector
a2
a2 (book: a = ha1 , a2 i, handwritten ~a or a)
a
a1
21 Calculus week 2
In math: vectors

In 2D: a=
a1
is a vector
a2
a
We write a ∈ R2
a1
21 Calculus week 2
In math: vectors

In 2D: a=
a1
is a vector
a2
a
We write a ∈ R2
q
Length or magnitude of a: kak = a21 + a22
a1
21 Calculus week 2
10.1 Adding vectors
Graphical: Make a parallelogram
a+b
b
Add the components

a1 b1 a1 + b1
a+b= + =
a2 b2 a2 + b2
22 Calculus week 2
10.1 Scalar multiplication
2a
a
-a
c is a number, so c ∈ R

c · a1
c·a=
c · a2
Length: kc · ak = |c| · kak
23 Calculus week 2
10.1 Distance between vectors
b d(a, b)
Distance: (a1 − b1 )2 + (a2 − b2 )2

p
d(a, b) = ka − bk =
24 Calculus week 2
10.1 Parallel vectors
Definition (Parallel)
Two vectors a and b are parallel if b = c · a for some c ∈ R
25 Calculus week 2
10.1 Parallel vectors
Definition (Parallel)
Two vectors a and b are parallel if b = c · a for some c ∈ R
Three options
1. Vectors have same direction (c > 0)
2. Vectors have opposite direction (c < 0)
3. b is the zero vector (c = 0, so b = 0)
25 Calculus week 2
10.1 Unit vectors
Definition (Unit vector)

A vector with length 1 is called a unit vector
26 Calculus week 2
10.1 Unit vectors

Example
Some unit vectors The following vectors
1 √ have length
11
1 0 2

2 cos(α)
i = e1 = j = e2 = a = 12 √ b = 1√ c=
0 1 2 2 2 3
sin(α)
26 Calculus week 2
10.1 Unit vectors

Example
Some unit vectors The following vectors
1 √ have length
11
1 0 2

2 cos(α)
i = e1 = j = e2 = a = 12 √ b = 1√ c=
0 1 2 2 2 3
sin(α)
i and j are called the standard vectors
26 Calculus week 2
10.1 Unit vectors
Theorem (How to construct a unit vector)

Let x be a vector, x 6= 0
x
Then u = is a unit vector
kxk
27 Calculus week 2
10.1 Polar form
y
2

a=
2
28 Calculus week 2
10.1 Polar form √
• Vector a has length r = 2 2
y Angle with positive x-axis θ = π
4
2

a=
2
28 Calculus week 2
10.1 Polar form √
4
0

b=
4
2

a=
2
28 Calculus week 2
10.1 Polar form √
4
0
• Vector b has length r = 4
b= Angle with positive x-axis θ = π
4 2
2

a=
2
28 Calculus week 2
10.1 Polar form √
4
0
4 2

−3
c=
3 2

a=
2
28 Calculus week 2
10.1 Polar form √
4
0
4 2

−3 √
c= • Vector c has length r = 3 2
3 2

a= Angle with positive x-axis θ = 3π
2 4
28 Calculus week 2
10.1 Polar form √
4
0
4 2

−3 √
3 2

2 4

−5 x
d=
0
28 Calculus week 2
10.1 Polar form √
4
0
4 2

−3 √
3 2

2 4
• Vector d has length r = 5

−5 x Angle with positive x-axis θ = π
d=
0
28 Calculus week 2
10.1 Polar form √
4
0
4 2

−3 √
3 2

2 4

d=
0

0 e=
−2
28 Calculus week 2
10.1 Polar form √
4
0
4 2

−3 √
3 2

2 4

d=
0

• Vector e has length r = 2
0 e=
−2 Angle with positive x-axis θ = − π2
28 Calculus week 2
10.1 Polar form
y
a2 a From Cartesian to polar:
r q
r = a21 + a22 = kak
tan(θ) = a2 /a1
θ
a1 x
From polar to Cartesian:
a1 = r cos(θ)
a2 = r sin(θ)
29 Calculus week 2
10.1 Steering an airplane
An airplane has an airspeed of 400
km/h
Suppose the wind velocity in km/h is
given by the vector
20

w=
30
In what direction should the plane

head in order to fly due west
(i.e. in the direction of −i)?
30 Calculus week 2
10.2 Vectors in 3D
 
a1
a = a2  is a vector
z a3
(book: ha1 , a2 , a3 i)
a
We write a ∈ R3
Length:
q
y kak = a21 + a22 + a23
x
Adding two vectors and scalar multiplication: Same as in 2D
31 Calculus week 2
10.2 Standard basis in 3D
Standard basis vectors:
1 0 0
     
i = e1 = 0 j = e2 = 1 k = e3 = 0

0 0 1
You can write any vector in R3 as a linear combination of the three basis vectors:
1 0 0
       
a1
a = a2 = a1 0 + a2 1 + a3 0 = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
      
a3 0 0 1
32 Calculus week 2
10.2 Unit vectors in 3D

Theorem
Let x be a vector, x 6= 0
x
Then u = is a unit vector
kxk
33 Calculus week 2
10.2 Equation of a sphere
Take two points in space: P = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q = (x2 , y2 , z2 )
Distance between P and Q: d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2
p
34 Calculus week 2
p
Example
Find all points in space with distance 2 from the point (1, 4, −2)
34 Calculus week 2
p
Example
Solution: We take P = (x, y, z) and Q = (1, 4, −2)
q
d(P, Q) = 2 =⇒ (x − 1)2 + (y − 4)2 + (z + 2)2 = 2
=⇒ (x − 1)2 + (y − 4)2 + (z + 2)2 = 4
This is the equation of a sphere with radius 2 and center (1, 4, −2)
34 Calculus week 2
p
Example
Solution: We take P = (x, y, z) and Q = (1, 4, −2)
q
d(P, Q) = 2 =⇒ (x − 1)2 + (y − 4)2 + (z + 2)2 = 2
=⇒ (x − 1)2 + (y − 4)2 + (z + 2)2 = 4
This is the equation of a sphere with radius 2 and center (1, 4, −2)
34 Calculus week 2
Definition
The standard form of the equation of a sphere
with radius r and center (a, b, c) is
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 + (z − c)2 = r 2
35 Calculus week 2
10.3 Dot product
Definition (Dot product)

   
a1 b1
Let a, b ∈ R3 with a = a2  and b = b2 
a3 b3
We define the dot product as
a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
36 Calculus week 2
10.3 Dot product
Definition (Dot product)

   
a1 b1
Let a, b ∈ R3 with a = a2  and b = b2 
a3 b3
We define the dot product as
a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
• Dot product is also called inner product or scalar product

• Dot product is a number: a · b ∈ R
• Other notation: (a, b)
36 Calculus week 2
10.3 Properties of the dot product
Theorem (Properties of the dot product)

a·b=b·a for all a, b ∈ R3
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c for all a, b, c ∈ R3
(α a) · b = α(a · b) = a · (α b) for all α ∈ R and a, b ∈ R3
0·a=0 for all a ∈ R3
a · a = a21 + a22 + a23 = kak2 for all a ∈ R3
37 Calculus week 2
10.3 Angles
The dot product is extremely useful for computing angles
Theorem (Computing angle between two vectors)

Let a, b ∈ R3 b
Denote the angle between a and b by θ
Then
θ a
a · b = kak · kbk · cos(θ)
38 Calculus week 2
10.3 Angles
The dot product is extremely useful for computing angles
Theorem (Computing angle between two vectors)

Let a, b ∈ R3 b
Denote the angle between a and b by θ
Then
θ a
a · b = kak · kbk · cos(θ)
We always take θ such that 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
38 Calculus week 2
10.3 Angles: some special cases
a·b
Dot product: a · b = kak · kbk · cos(θ). Rewrite as cos(θ) =
kak · kbk
Special choices
a·a
• Take b = a then cos(θ) = = 1. So indeed θ = 0
kak · kak
39 Calculus week 2
a·b
kak · kbk
Special choices
a·a
kak · kak
• Take a and b parallel then b = ca for some c ∈ R
39 Calculus week 2
a·b
kak · kbk
Special choices
a·a
kak · kak
a · (ca)
I If c > 0 then cos(θ) = = 1. So θ = 0
kak · kcak
39 Calculus week 2
a·b
kak · kbk
Special choices
a·a
kak · kak
a · (ca)
I If c > 0 then cos(θ) = = 1. So θ = 0
kak · kcak
a · (ca) ca · a
I If c < 0 then cos(θ) = = = −1. So θ = π
kak · kcak kak · |c| · kak
θ=π
a
39 Calculus week 2 b
10.3 Angles: some special cases (cont.)
• If a and b are perpendicular then θ = π/2

Therefore a · b = kak · kbk · cos(θ) = 0
b
θ = π/2
a
40 Calculus week 2
10.3 Angles: some special cases (cont.)
• If a and b are perpendicular then θ = π/2

Therefore a · b = kak · kbk · cos(θ) = 0
b
θ = π/2
a
Corollary (Perpendicular)
Two vectors a and b are perpendicular if and only if a · b = 0
We also say: a and b are orthogonal (same as perpendicular)

Short notation: a ⊥ b
40 Calculus week 2

2WAB0 BBK Week 2-1 Annotated

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Calculus week 2

Geometry: trigonometry, vectors, lines and planes

Department of Mathematics and Computer Science

Definition (Periodic function)

Definition (Periodic function)

Definition (Periodic function)

If f is periodic with period T then f is also periodic with e.g. period 2T

1 • Circle with center (0, 0) and radius 1

1 • Circle with center (0, 0) and radius 1

1 • Circle with center (0, 0) and radius 1

α 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2

α 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2

So that you find these values

α 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2

• Periodicity: cos(α + 2π) = cos(α), sin(α + 2π) = sin(α)

• Periodicity: cos(α + 2π) = cos(α), sin(α + 2π) = sin(α)

• P is on the unit circle, so x2 + y 2 = 1. Hence: cos2 (α) + sin2 (α) = 1

• Periodicity: cos(α + 2π) = cos(α), sin(α + 2π) = sin(α)

• P is on the unit circle, so x2 + y 2 = 1. Hence: cos2 (α) + sin2 (α) = 1

Corollary (Take β = −γ)

Corollary (Take β = −γ)

hypotenuse opposite side

SOH CAH TOA

Add the components

Distance: (a1 − b1 )2 + (a2 − b2 )2

Definition (Unit vector)

Definition (Unit vector)

Definition (Unit vector)

i and j are called the standard vectors

Theorem (How to construct a unit vector)

In what direction should the plane

Adding two vectors and scalar multiplication: Same as in 2D

i = e1 = 0 j = e2 = 1 k = e3 = 0

Definition (Unit vector)

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 + (z − c)2 = r 2

Definition (Dot product)

Definition (Dot product)

• Dot product is also called inner product or scalar product

Theorem (Properties of the dot product)

Theorem (Computing angle between two vectors)

Theorem (Computing angle between two vectors)

We always take θ such that 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

• If a and b are perpendicular then θ = π/2

• If a and b are perpendicular then θ = π/2

We also say: a and b are orthogonal (same as perpendicular)

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