MODULE 4

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, the learners are expected to:

1. describe an inclusive classroom

2. design a plan for an inclusive classroom

CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE

Galatians 3:28 - There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond
nor free, there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus.

INTRODUCTION

This module presents the concepts, approaches and characteristics of inclusive education.

SUBJECT MATTER DISCUSSION

Least Restrictive Environment

Inclusion means keeping students in general education classrooms rather than having them
receive services in separate special education classrooms. This is a significant change from the traditional
practice of having students receive special services in resource rooms or self-contained special education
classrooms and then return to general education classrooms without special education support. It comes
from the “least restrictive environment” provision of the law. When students are educated in the least
restrictive environment, they are taught in classrooms that most closely approximate a normal learning
situation. For many students with mild disabilities, the least restrictive environment is a general education
classroom with special education support services. For students who require more intensive remedial
help, the least restrictive environment might be part-time resource room instruction with the majority of
their school day spent in the general classroom.

Organizing Inclusion Programs

• Communicate with Parents. Parents of students with mild disabilities attend individual
education program (IEP) conferences, participate in decisions regarding type of special services,
and approve placement changes.

• Understand Student Needs. Full-time entry into a general classroom can be an anxiety-
provoking experience for a student. Special education programs provide a safe haven from the
demands of normal school routines, and special education students may experience “newness
panic.” Some students withdraw, while others act out in uncharacteristic ways.

• Evaluate Progress. Enormous amounts of time and money are spent by school systems to
assess the educational status of children referred for special education. Norm-referenced tests
measure how they compare in academics to their peers. Criterion-referenced tests pinpoint
specific strengths and weaknesses in academics. Psychological tests attempt to determine
whether a student has mild mental retardation, a learning disability, or an emotional disturbance.
Observations detail learning styles and student ability to adapt to classroom routines.
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 • Collaboration
Collaboration should be explained to parent as a school team or committee voluntarily meeting
together to review all facets of the child’s condition, history, and instructional methods

INCLUSION MODELS

Co-Teacher Model
Co-teaching means that the general education teacher and the special education teacher work
together in the regular classroom. Both work directly with students and share teaching responsibilities.
They co-teach.

Basic Approaches for Co-Teaching (Friend and Cook, 2000)

1. One Teach, One Observe. One teacher primarily manages the classroom while the other observes.
The teacher who is observing can do data collection, recorded student learning characteristics, and so
on.

2. One Teach, One Drift. One teacher instructs the class while the other intermingles among students,
offering specialized assistance. Both teachers need to take active and passive roles at some time.

3. Station Teaching. Both teachers deliver instruction in teaching stations. Students can work
independently at the third teaching station or with a volunteer, student or paraprofessional.

4. Parallel Teaching. The class is divided in half, with each teacher taking a similar number of students
to teach. Each teacher is teaching the same information, but in a different manner. For example, the
special education teacher might bring in outlines, highlighted materials, and manipulatives with which to
instruct students.

5. Alternative Teaching. One teacher manages the major group of students, while the other has a
small group pulled aside. The group membership changes according to the purpose of the group, which
might be to preview or review material being learned, to provide social skills training, or for enrichment.

6. Team Teaching. Two teachers are actively involved in managing instruction with the whole class.
Both teachers assume responsibility for teaching subject
content areas. Values Integration/Christian Perspective:

Characteristics of Inclusive Education Galatians 3:28 - There is neither

Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond
1. All students are welcomed in general education. The nor free, there is neither male nor
general education class in the school the student would female: for ye are all one in Christ Jes
attend if not disabled is the first placement option us.
considered. Appropriate supports, regardless of disability,
type or severity, are available.
2. Students are educated with peers in the same age
groupings available to those without disability labels.
3. Students with varying characteristics and abilities (e.g., those with and without disability labels)
participate in shared educational experiences while pursuing individually appropriate learning outcomes
with necessary supports and accommodations.
4. Shared educational experiences take place in settings predominantly frequented by people without
disabilities (e.g. general education classes, community work sites, community recreational facilities).

27
5. Educational experiences are designed to enhance individually determined
valued life outcomes for students and therefore seek an individualized balance
between the academic-functional and social-personal aspects of schooling. Research for schools in
the Philippines that
. practice inclusive
education.

MODULE 5
THEORIES OF LEARNING INFLUENTIAL TO SPECIAL EDUCATION PRACTICES

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, the learners are expected to:

1. explain the different theories applied in special education practices

2. identify practical activities where these theories are applied
3. analyze a case study and suggest strategies that apply the discussed theories

CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE

Phil. 4:9 Whatever you have learned or received or heard from me, or seen in me—
put it into practice. And the God of peace will be with you.

INTRODUCTION

This module discusses the four theories of learning that are applied in special education
namely: Behavioral, Cognitive, Social and Constructivist.

SUBJECT MATTER DISCUSSION

I. Behavioral Theory

Behaviorism. From a behaviorist viewpoint, all behavior is learned and has been learned through the
use of reinforcement, punishment, or extinction.
Behavior modification is a technique based on the work of renowned psychologist B.F. Skinner.
Using behavior modification, teachers extinguish an undesirable behavior and replace it with a desirable
behavior. Based upon Skinner’s principle of operant conditioning, any response that is followed by a
reinforcing stimulus tends to be repeated, and any response that is followed by punishment or by ignoring
tends not to be repeated (Hergenhahn and Olsen 2001). In other words, individuals learn a behavior to
operate in their environments (make a certain response to their environment) to acquire or avoid a
consequence – hence the term operant.

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 Reinforcement

According to Skinner, a consequence is a reinforcer when it serves to increase the probability of

the recurrence of the response. A reinforcer is anything that increase the rate with which an operant
response occurs. Praising a student for good work is very likely to be reinforcing to the student; in turn,
the student will repeat the behavior to receive more praise. One important fact about reinforcement is
that if you want the response to occur again, you must provide the reinforcer only when the response
occurs – this is known as contingent reinforcement.

Reinforcers can either negative or positive. A positive reinforcer increases behavior when presented
immediately following the response. A negative reinforces increases behavior when removed.

Punishment decreases the probability of the occurrence of a behavior temporarily. It has various
effects: it may (1) lead to avoidance behaviors, (2) lead to retaliation or negative feelings toward the
punisher, (3) teach students what not to do, (4) result in the student experiencing negative emotions,
and (5) not generalize across settings.

Time-Out
Time-out is another procedure that attempts to decrease the probability or the occurrence of a behavior
(response) temporarily. Time-outs are the withholding of reinforcement for all behaviors. Typically, they
are used with younger students. In some cases, the child may be removed from the classroom.
Extinction
Extinction means to eliminate a behavior by withholding reinforcement. Whereas time-outs involve
removing the student from a reinforcing environment, extinction involves withholding reinforcement for
an inappropriate response.

Cognitive Behavior Modification

Cognitive behavior modification (CBM) refers to using cognitive skills to help control one’s behavior.
Cognitive behavior modification grew from the belief that people do in fact use cognitive skills and that
psychologists and others can modify or change behavior by having individuals think about their behavior.
The two main types of CBM are self-instructions and self-monitoring.

Meichenbaum and Goodman (1971) developed a five-step sequence for training students to use self-
instructions. These are:

1. Cognitive Modeling – An adult model performs a task while thinking aloud.

2. Overt External Guidance – The student performs the same task while the model verbalizes the
steps and provides guidance.
3. Overt Self-Guidance – The student performs the task while saying the steps aloud.
4. Faded Overt Self-Guidance – The student whispers the steps while completing the task.
5. Covert Self-Guidance – The student performs the task while silently reviewing the steps.

Another cognitive behavior modification technique is called self-monitoring. When teaching

students to use self-monitoring, there is initially a cuing system that prompts the students to stop what
they are doing to record self-behavior on a self-monitoring card (Boyle and Hughes, 1994). The tone or
bell sounds at random intervals from 15 seconds 10 120 seconds. Once students hear the tone, they
stop the task and ask, “Am I working?”. If on-task, students place a mark under the “Yes” and keep
working. If the answer is “No,” students record a mark under “No” and tell themselves, “I need to get
back to work.” This self-monitor training program was used with elementary students with mental
retardation. Figure 2 presents a self-monitoring card used with older students. Using this card, students
29
record a + or 0 when the tone sounds. The cheat sheet is used to remind students of examples of on-
task and off-task behavior.
Yes No
☺ 

Figure 2. Self-Monitoring Card

Figure 3. Self-
II. Cognitive Theories Monitoring Cheat
Sheet and Cue Card
Information Processing Model
1. Information is processed through stages. In other words, new
information is processed in each stage or component in the model.

2. Each stage is limited in how much information can be processed at any one time. In each stage, only
a limited amount of information can be processed and passed on to the next component or encoded into
long-term memory.

3. Information is lost at each stage through decay, interference, or lack of usefulness. Because of the
limited capacity of each stage, only a limited amount of information can be processed. We must decide
what information we will pay attention to, and pass that information on to be processed.

Schema Theory. Cognitive psychologists also theorize that information in long-term memory is
arranged into knowledge structures. Each knowledge structure is called a schema and contains
information about a particular concept. Schema theorists believe that we possess schemata, and that
these schemata consist of both declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. When students
have a well-defined schema about a concept that they are learning, they can easily access the schema,
elaborate on it, and become more knowledgeable about the concept.

Metacognitive Theory and Strategy Use. Flavel (1976) claimed that metacognition involves
how to use a strategy, where to employ a strategy and support its use, and when to employ a strategy
based upon the task or situation. A strategy is a set procedure or series of steps for successfully
completing a task.

Social Learning Theory. This model is developed by Albert Bandura (1977). According to this
theory, learning occurs as the result of an interaction of three factors: physical characteristics of the
person, environmental contingencies, and the person’s behaviors. From this perspective, students learn
new behaviors by observing others and then responding to those observations.

According to Bandura, the following components are essential to observational learning:

1. Attention is needed to observe a model and determine which actions and responses are important
to remember.
2. Retention is crucial for remembering information from observations.
3. Production refers to the translation of stored images and verbal descriptions into actions
4. Motivation occurs through reinforcement in observational learning.

III. Constructivist Theory

According to Vygotsky (1978), learning is a social process in which learners interact with others
in their environment to learn concepts and skills and gradually internalize them.
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Constructivist Principles
1. All students are active learners. Always search for constructing knowledge.
2. The best predictor of what is learned is based on what students already know.
3. Form follows function in learning.
4. Learning occurs best when it goes from whole to part to whole.
5. Errors are essential to learning.
6. The end goal is construction of knowledge, not transmission of it.

Using Theories in Teaching

Application of Behavioral Theory

Reinforcement
a. Choose an inappropriate (that is, undesirable) behavior that needs to be changed.
b. Decide which new or alternate behavior you want to see increase in frequency and replace the
inappropriate behavior.
c. Decide how to measure the new target behavior, and begin taking data to determine its current
level.
d. Decide when and how you will begin reinforcing the target behavior, and determine which
reinforcers you will use.
e. Keep data to ensure that target behavior is increasing. Once you see increases and know that
the behavior has been established, decide how you want to change, if any, the reinforcement or
frequency or reinforcement.
f. Once the behavior has been established over a long period of time, decide how you want to
fade out external reinforcers or move to a self-monitoring system.

Task Analysis. Using a task analysis to examine complex behavior changes or complex tasks often helps
students. A task analysis involves breaking down a large task into smaller subtasks or steps. Once tasks
are broken down, students are taught to perform these smaller steps before being asked to complete
the larger overall task.

Group Contingencies. A group contingency is a system in which the receipt of reinforcement for the
entire group depends upon the behavior of its group members. A group contingency is a behavior
management technique that is used to control the behavior of large groups of students.

Application of Cognitive Theories

Values Integration/Christian Perspective:
1. Information Processing Model
Phil. 4:9 Whatever you have learned or received
a. Attention. If giving oral directions, it is or heard from me, or seen in me—
important first to have students stop what they are doing put it into practice. And the God of peace will
and look at you as you describe the directions. Gaining be with you.
attention is one aspect of attention; the other is sustaining
their attention over a period of time.
b. Chunking. Chunking involves combining similar
or like items together for the purpose of learning or
remembering them. Chunking is a particularly helpful
strategy with unorganized information or lists of items. Students can learn to organize lesson content
into a web or other graphic that depicts how discrete concepts are related and then use the category
label to recall them.
c. Meaningfulness. Meaningful learning occurs when students link new knowledge with prior
knowledge. They are not just chunking the information, they are forging schematic relationships. Using

31
the KWL technique is one example. An advance organizer can also be given at the beginning of a lesson
which involves tapping into prior knowledge in the form of a review of recently learned information.

d. Analogies. Analogies represent another method of tapping into long-term memory to bring
the prior information into working memory so that new knowledge can be encoded. Students have to be
familiar with the first part of the analogy or they will be learning two new concepts.

Application of Social Learning Theory

Models. The use of peer models is particularly helpful for students when they are learning new
tasks or need feedback about incorrectly performed tasks. Models serve to show students how to perform
a task and provide a concrete and realistic example of performance.

Cooperative Learning and Peer Tutoring. Cooperative learning involves students working to
complete a task in groups, in which they can be dependent on one another in several possible ways. In
peer tutoring, two students take turns performing the roles of tutor and tutee.

Application of Constructivists Theories

What learning theories
When constructivist lessons include scaffolded support, they can be would you to learn
effective for learners with mild disabilities – who have been found to benefit more about? Search
most from explicit instructional practices. Typically, students with mild more information
disabilities benefit from explicit instruction to help them firmly master
about that theory.
foundational concepts and skills (Gersten 1991).

.
MODULE 6
STUDENTS WITH MENTAL RETARDATION

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, the learners are expected to:

1. named and described the assessment procedures to screen and assess children with mental
retardation; and
2. develop a lesson plan for inclusive education for children with mental retardation

CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE

Prov. 18:5 “An intelligent heart acquires knowledge, and the ear of the wise seeks kn
owledge.”

INTRODUCTION
This module tackles the definition and characteristics of children with mental retardation. This
also presents teaching strategies and assessment tools appropriate to the needs of these children.

32
SUBJECT MATTER DISCUSSION

Definition of Mental Retardation

“Mental retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning. It is characterized by

significantly sub-average intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in two or
more of the following adaptive skills areas: communication, self-care, home living, social skills,
community use, self-direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure and work. Mental
retardation manifests before age 18.” (Heward, 2003)

Classification of Mental Retardation (American Association on Mental Retardation)

1. mild MR with IQ scores from 55 to 70
2. moderate MR with IQ scores from 40 to 54
3. severe MR with IQ scores from 25 to 39, and
4. profound MR with IQ scores below 25.

The AAMR has introduced a new system of classification that is based on the amount of support that the
person needs in order to function to the highest possible level. The four categories of mental retardation
according to the intensity of needed supports are : (Wehmeyer, 2002)

1. Intermittent supports are on “as needed” basis, that is, the person needs help only at certain periods
of time and not all the time. Support will most likely be required during periods of transition, for example,
moving from school to work.

2. Limited supports are required consistently, though not on a daily basis. The support needed is of a
non-intensive nature.

3. Extensive supports are needed on a regular basis; daily supports are required in some environment,
for example, daily home living tasks.
4. Pervasive supports are daily extensive supports, perhaps of a life-sustaining nature required in multiple
environments.

Causes of Mental Retardation

Mental retardation may result from one or more factors, such as chromosomal disorders, societal
problems, or difficulties during pregnancy and the birth process. Chromosomal disorders may be genetic
or may result from a random error during the embryo’s development. In most cases, a screening test
during pregnancy can identify a chromosomal disorder such as Down syndrome. Problems during
pregnancy, such as the use of drugs and alcohol, can cause mental retardation. Prematurity, low birth
weight, brain damage, lack of oxygen, or environmental hazards also cause mental retardation. More
frequently than not, however, the cause of a student’s mental retardation is unknown.

Assessment Procedures

In general, in the Philippines where the education system hardly provides for clinicians like school
psychologists or psychomtericians, initial assessment is done by the classroom teacher in order to identify
who among the regular students are in need of special education. Initial assessment is done through
teacher nomination. For school-age children, teachers are an important source of information about their
learning and behavior attributes. A checklist of the learning and behavior characteristics of children with
special education needs is used. When a child manifests half or more than half of the characteristics in
the checklist, then the final assessment follows. Here, a guidance counselor or special education teacher

33
administers the appropriate assessment tools developed by the Special Education Division of the Bureau
of Elementary Education of the Department of Education.

When a child is suspected to have a suspected to have a developmental disability such as mental
retardation a complete diagnosis of the condition is necessary. A thorough assessment of the condition
is critical in considering a child’s eligibility for special educational services, and/or aid in planning the
educational and other services he/she and the family may need. The assessment process covers a more
intensive observation and evaluation of the child’s cognitive and adaptive skills, analysis of medical history
especially of the mother’s condition during pregnancy and other circumstances related to causative
factors and the child’s current level of functioning. The use of more than one assessment procedure
provides a wealth of information about the child permitting the evaluation of the biological, cognitive,
social, and interpersonal variables that affect the child’s current behavior.

In the diagnostic assessment of children, parents and other significant individuals in the child’s
environment provide a rich source of information. The components of assessment, informal and
standardized tests, home visits, interview and observation complement each other and from a firm
foundation for making correct decisions about the child. Certainly, major discrepancies among the
findings obtained from the various assessment procedures must be resolved before any diagnostic
decisions or recommendations are made. For example, if the intelligence test results indicate that the
child is currently functioning in the sub-average range, while the interview data and the adaptive behavior
characteristics suggest average functioning, it is necessary to reconcile these disparate findings before
making a diagnosis. An evaluation report that provides information relevant to instruction and other
services is useful to both teachers and parents. The inclusion of families in the management of their
children’s education presents new challenges. Nevertheless, their participation in arriving at important
decisions about the children will ultimately be rewarding and beneficial to all the members of the team.

Teaching Methods/Strategies for Mental Retardation in Inclusion

Methods of Instruction
Teaching children with mental retardation requires explicit and systematic instruction. One such
method of teaching is the Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) which is derived from the theory and
principles of behavior modification and the effect of the environment on the learning process.

Task analysis is the process of breaking down complex or multiple skills into smaller, easier-to-
learn subtasks. Direct and frequent measurement of the increments of learning is done to keep track of
the effects of instruction and to introduce needed changes whenever necessary. Active Student Response
(ASR) or the observable response made to an instructional antecedent is correlated to student
achievement. Systematic feedback through positive reinforcement is employed whenever needed by
rewarding the student’s correct responses with simple positive comments, gestures or facial expressions.
Meanwhile incorrect responses are immediately corrected (error correct technique) by asking the student
to repeat the correct responses after the teacher.

The application of learned skills in the natural environment is emphasized in the Transfer of
Stimulus Control method of instruction. Correct responses are rewarded through positive reinforcement.
Conversely, generalization and maintenance of learned skills or the extent to which students can apply
correctly what they have learned across settings and over time are measured and recorded.

Educational Placement Alternatives

In the past, children with mental retardation were usually place in self-contained classes. The
special curriculum emphasized the communication arts, mathematics, self-help skills, social and
recreational skills, motor skills, and prevocational and vocational skills. Through this traditional approach
is still relatively common, increasingly, students with mental retardation are now include in mainstream
34
schools and even regular classes. This is particularly the case for those with mild to moderate retardation.
Typically, these students receive their special education in either a resource room, where they work with
a special education teacher one-to-one or in a small group, or in the regular classroom where the special
education teacher works with them. In this model, the amount of time students spend outside the regular
classroom depends on their individual needs. Thus, some may spend nearly the entire day in the regular
classroom while others may be there for less than an hour.

Values Integration/Christian Perspective: Students with Mental Retardation in Inclusive

Prov. 18:5 “An intelligent heart acquires
knowledge, and the ear of the wise
seeks knowledge.”
Education
Suggestions for SPED teaches and the regular
teachers working with mainstreamed children with mental
retardation

• Together, study the student’s IEP and agree on the

teachers’ roles and responsibilities to make inclusive
education and mainstreaming work.
• Set regular meetings with teacher other, with the students or their families to assess how effective
the program is going and what else needs to be done.
• Encourage acceptance of the student by the classmates by setting an example and giving the
student the chance to show that he or she is more like the others than different.
• Use instructional procedures that will be of benefit to the student, such as demonstrating the
more complex and difficult tasks, and providing multiple opportunities for practice.
• When teaching abstract concepts, provide multiple concrete examples
• Supplement verbal instructions with demonstrations whenever possible.
• Assign a peer tutor to assist the student during independent activities.
• Vary the tasks in drills and practice activities.
• Encourage the use of computer-based tutorial and other appropriate computer-based materials.
• In class lectures, utilize the lecture-pause technique.
• Have a volunteer tape-record reading assignments if the student is unable to read.
• Use cooperative learning strategies involving heterogeneous groups of students.
• Use multilayered activities involving flexible learning objectives to accommodate the needs of
students with diverse abilities.
• Pair students with mental retardation with non-disabled classmates who have similar interests.
• Encourage regular students to assist the students with mental retardation as they participate in
class activities.

Assessment strategies

• Allow extensions to assignment deadlines

• Use technology to record students work, e.g. digital photography, tape and video.
• Students may take longer to organize thoughts and sequence material. They will benefit from
discussing their outlines, with particular attention being paid to appropriate relationships and
connections between points.
• Encourage the student to submit an early draft of assignments to allow the opportunity for
feedback to the student as a formative process.
• Students with an intellectual disability will need extra time in an examination for reading and
analyzing questions and for planning their answers. Some students will request that examination
questions be read to them. Some students may prefer to dictate their answers to a scribe. They
will need a venue which is quiet and distraction-free.

35
 • Keep short your written examination instructions and sentences within examination questions.
Questions using bullet points, lists or distinct parts are more likely to be correctly interpreted.
• Because students with intellectual disability find it difficult to read multiple choice questions in a
way that allows them to appreciate subtle changes in the arrangement of words, short answer
questions will be a better test of their knowledge.
• Students may benefit from an exam timetable that features a number of days between exams to
assist in exam preparation.
• Many students with intellectual disability are chronic misspellers and use dictionaries only with
great difficulty.

SUMMARY

• The research process involves identification and definition of research Watch a video about
problem, statement of research problem, writing theoretical and children with mental
conceptual framework, defining terms, formulating hypothesis, retardation. What
choosing research design, identifying target population and sampling, strategies were used by
data collection, data processing, data analysis and interpretation, the teacher?
report preparation and information dissemination.
.

MODULE 7
STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, the learners are expected to:

1. determine the specific learning disabilities through their characteristics

2. design a plan for inclusive education for children with learning disabilities
3. demonstrate teaching strategies in dealing with children with specific learning disabilities

CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE

Psa. 32:8 “I will instruct you and teach you in the way you should go; I will counsel
Psa
you with my loving eye on you.”

INTRODUCTION

This module presents the definition and characteristics of children with learning disabilities. This
also suggest teaching strategies and assessment tools appropriate to the needs of these children.

SUBJECT MATTER DISCUSSION

WHAT ARE LEARNING DISABILITIES?

The term learning disabilities was introduced in 1963 by Dr. Samuel Kirk, a well-known American
special education special education expert.

36
 Children with learning disabilities have relatively average or even above average intelligence who
experience severe learning or academic problems in school.
The American National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) which is composed of
several professional organizations issued the following definition in 1989:

“Learning disabilities is a generic term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders

manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing,
reasoning or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be
due to central nervous system dysfunction. Learning disabilities may appear across the life span.
Problems in self-regulatory behavior, social perception and social interaction may exist in learning
disabilities but do not themselves constitute a learning disability.

Although learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions, for
example, blindness, deafness, serious emotional disturbance, or with extrinsic influences such as cultural
differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction, learning disabilities is not the result of these
conditions.”

The Genetic Factors in Learning Disabilities

1. Brain Damage
An increasing consensus attributes learning disabilities to neurological dysfunction or central
nervous system pathology. The models on the causes of learning disabilities state that the condition can
be:
a. hereditary, indicating the presence in the genetic make up of certain inherited diseases or
disorders that damage the brain.
b. innate, resulting from biological influences during the period of conception or pregnancy.
c. congenital or constitutional, indicating that biological influence may have originated during the
process of gestation or development in the prenatal (before birth), perinatal (during birth), or postnatal
(after birth) periods of development.

2. Biochemical Imbalance
Some researchers claim that biochemical disturbances in a child’s body cause learning disabilities.
A study in 1975 (Feingold) suggested that artificial food colors, flavors, preservatives, salicylates and
megavitamins in many of the foods that children eat can cause learning disabilities and hyperactivity. But
a comprehensive review of diet related studies concluded that very little pieces of evidence supported
the statement. So, although it is possible, or even probable that biochemistry may affect a child’s behavior
and learning in the classroom, no scientific evidence exists today to reveal the nature or extent of that
influence.

3. Environmental Factors
Three types of environmental influences believed to be related to children’s learning problems:
(Lovitt, 1978)
1. emotional disturbance. Many children with learning problems have behavioral disorders as
well. Whether one causes the other or whether both are caused by some other factors remains uncertain.
2. lack of motivation. It is difficulty to identify reinforcing activities for some students with
learning disabilities. It is possible that they may not simply be interested in any of the things that other
children like.
3. poor instruction. Although children are able to learn in spite of poor teaching and inadequate
strategies, other children are less fortunate. Some of them who have experiences poor instruction in the
early grades are not able to catch up with their peers.

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DYSLEXIA
Dyslexia is a neurologically-based, often familiar disorder which interferes with the acquisition and
processing of language. Varying in degrees of severity, it is manifested by difficulties in receptive
language, including phonological processing, in reading, writing, spelling, handwriting and sometimes in
arithmetic.

Some signs which may indicate dyslexia in young children

• Inability to crawl
• Difficulty learning nursery rhymes
• Inability to recognize rhyming worlds
• May have had early signs of language difficulties and pronunciation of sounds
• Muddles words and sounds, for example ‘tar’ for ‘car’ and ‘beddie tear’ instead of ‘teddy bear’.
• Shows no interest in letters and words but enjoys being read to
• Difficulties in sequencing, for example, dressing, colour sequences, instructions and alphabet
recall

The indicators for dyslexia in older children

One of the indicators in older children could be continuous reversal of letters, for example ‘b’ and
‘d’. This alone does not mean the child is dyslexic, you need to observe what other areas of difficulty the
pupil is experiencing.

Some difficulties which could indicate dyslexia in older children

• Confusion with directional language
• Gross and fine motor skill difficulties
• Continued difficulty in learning to read, write, spell and recall times tables.
• Poor concentration and appearing to be lacking in motivation
• Frustration and anxiety and a lack of confidence in reading, writing, spelling and possibly mental
mathematics.
• Disorganization and forgetfulness; for example, following a timetable, remembering homework
and equipment for particular lessons
• Length of time to complete a task or respond to questions due to a difficulty in processing and
retaining instructions
• Adopting strategies such as inappropriate behavior to avoid certain aspects of lessons which they
fin extremely challenging.

Making your classroom dyslexia friendly

Color Coding
• The teacher/pupil highlights key words (use acetate over text to protect if using a book).
• Regular use of colored highlighter pens can be beneficial (preferably allow the pupil to select the
color). Examples of how this might be used are: a different color for adjectives/nouns/verbs
• For those pupils who do not understand sentence structure color coding can be used to highlight
the capital letter and the full stop. As pupils learn more about sentence structure and punctuation
color coding can be used for speech marks, question marks, commas and colons.
• When proof reading the pupil can highlight words which he/she considers are incorrectly spelled.
Please remember to limit the number of words you ask them to highlight to protect their self-
esteem.
• When learning spellings pupils can choose to highlight the part of the word they know or the part
they need to learn.
• Color code key words for different subject areas, for example labeling all science equipment the
same color.
• Provide a color coded timetable for different subjects.

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The particular needs of pupils with DYSPRAXIA
The word dyspraxia comes from ‘dys’, meaning difficulty, and ‘praxis’, indicating the ability to use
the body as a skilled tool. Dyspraxia is usually described as a developmental dyspraxia, motor learning
difficulty, developmental co-ordination disorder or percepto-motor dysfunction. This tells us that
dyspraxia is difficulty with movement and co-ordination and carrying out tasks. It has a detrimental
impact on both fine motor skills (such as picking up a small object and handwriting) and gross motor
skills (running, jumping and hopping), and in some cases it can affect speech. The exact causes are still
unknown; dyspraxia is believed to be due to a disruption in the way messages from the brain are
transmitted to the body.

Common Signs of Dyspraxia

• Not achieving expected developmental milestones, particularly in sitting, standing, crawling,
walking and talking, in comparison to other children of the same age
• Has difficulty dressing and undressing
• Poor short-term memory
• Falls over frequently and has difficulty with stairs
• Unable to hop, jump, skip, run, dance and kick a ball
• Difficulties following and remembering instructions
• Dyspraxia can impact on eye movement and therefore impacts on the ability to read

Ways to provide support for pupils with dyspraxia

• Provide a plan of the school to support them in navigating the school premises.
• Advise parents to purchase clothes without buttons or laces as this can cause unnecessary anxiety
when they have to dress/undress in given time.
• For handwriting exercises use multi-sensory approaches to letter formation, in sand, air writing,
scribing on the pupil’s back, stenciling and pencil/pen grips.
• Practice gross and fine motor skills through wobble boards, pegging items onto a washing line,
throwing and catching a range of objects in different sizes such as balloons, tennis balls, large
foam balls and bean bags.
• Don’t overfill cups as the drink will likely to spill.
• Encourage the playing of sports to develop co-ordination skills and confidence.

The particular needs of pupils with DYSCALCULIA

The word dyscalculia comes from ‘dys’, meaning difficulty, and ‘calculia’, from calculate. Pupils with
dyscalculia have a specific difficulty with mathematics an often are unable to acquire the basic concepts
that underpin the skills necessary for performing mathematical procedures. This can impact on very
simple activities, such as counting and comparing small numbers. They may be unable to visualize
numbers or see relationships between numbers. Other difficulties are counting groups of numbers,
recalling times tables or facts and using strategies for basic calculations. Pupils with dyscalculia will often
have difficulties with working memory, so during timed assessments they are likely to become particularly
stressed.

Common signs of dyscalculia

• Slower responses to number problems than pupils of the same age
• Failing to understand the basic concepts of number
• Counting on fingers and an inability to recognize small numbers without counting
• Difficulty in counting dots in array.
• Difficulty in visualizing
• Inability to tell the time form an analogue clock
• Forgetting previously understood procedures quickly
• Being poor at estimations tasks, will often count one by one in counting tasks
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 • Difficulty with estimating time, knowing what time to leave to get to school on time
• Avoidance of tasks and games which involve calculations

How to support a pupil with dyscalculia in school

• Ensure that they have a good view of the board and that distractions are minimized, such as
noises from other classrooms or outside.
• Recap prior learning as it is likely they will have short-term memory difficulties.
• Target their areas of weakness, focus on multi-sensory learning approaches.
• Have a variety of choices of pencil sizes and grips.
• Use a visual timetable to show the structure of the day.
• Remind them of tasks part way through a lesson.
• Support pupils during tests and assessments, allowing additional time for working out.
• Don’t ask them to solve mathematical problems in front of the rest of the class.
• Praise all achievements and look for signs of anxiety.

WHAT IS DYSGRAPHIA?
• Dysgraphia is a learning disability that affects handwriting and fine motor skills.
• It interferes with spelling, word spacing, and the general ability to put thoughts on paper.
• It makes the process of writing laboriously slow, and the written product difficult to read.

What Are the Symptoms of Dysgraphia?

Dysgraphia is usually identified when a child learns to write, but it can remain hidden until adulthood,
particularly in mild cases. Those with dysgraphia occasionally have trouble with other fine motor skills,
like tying their shoes — but not always. In elementary school settings, it’s estimated that approximately
4 percent of children suffer from dysgraphia. By middle school — when the complexity of written
assignments starts to increase dramatically — estimates can get as high as 20 percent. Common
indicators of dysgraphia, at any age, include:
• Trouble forming letters or spacing words consistently
• Awkward or painful grip on a pencil
• Difficulty following a line or staying within margins
• Trouble with sentence structure or following rules of grammar when writing, but not when
speaking
• Difficulty organizing or articulating thoughts on paper
• Pronounced difference between spoken and written understanding of a topic

What Is the Treatment for Dysgraphia?

If a child is diagnosed with dysgraphia, meet with the school’s evaluation team to request services
or support. Reducing the emphasis on writing and/or the required daily amount of writing allows most
children with dysgraphia to work successfully in school.
Uninformed teachers have been known to tell students with dysgraphia to “just practice” by
writing more often and focusing more intently on what they want to say. But more practice is often not
what kids with dysgraphia need to improve their writing; rather, they need the right practice — both at
school and at home. This often involves letter-formation drills, fixing incorrect grips on pencils or pens,
and using handwriting-specific training programs.
Adults who lived with undiagnosed dysgraphia for years have likely learned to avoid writing as
much as possible in their daily life — a pursuit that gets easier every day in our increasingly computer-
based society. If writing is still a concern for you, however, you can request accommodations at work —
like being allowed to type notes during meetings or making use of speech-to-text technology — that can
take the focus off handwriting and make day-to-day tasks easier to handle.
Children and adults alike may also benefit from working with an occupational therapist on letter
formation, fine-motor skills, and cursive writing, which can be easier than printing.

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 Causes of Learning Disabilities
Values Integration/Christian Perspective: The causes of learning disabilities are attributed to
genetic and environmental factors. Over the years,
Psa. 32:8 “I will instruct you and teach genetic researches show that learning disabilities tend to
you in the way you should go; I will run in families and heredity is a possible cause. Studies of
counsel you with my loving eye on you.” identical or monozygotic twins, where one fertilized egg
cell splits and develops into two separate embryos, show
that when one twin has a reading disability, the other twin
is more likely also to have a reading disability. Identical
twins possess the same physical and mental traits.
However, research shows that this is not true in the case
of fraternal or dizygotic twins where two egg cells are fertilized and develop into two distinct embryos.
Fraternal twins carry different physical and mental traits.

Teaching Strategies
There is a range of inclusive teaching strategies that can assist all students to learn but there are some
specific strategies that are useful in teaching a group which includes students with learning disability:
• Provide reading lists well before the start of a course so that reading can begin early. Consider
tailoring reading lists and providing guidance to key texts. Allow work to be completed on an in-
depth study of a few texts rather than a broad study of many.
• Whenever you are introducing procedures or processes or giving directions, for example in a
laboratory or computing exercise, ensure that stages or sequences are made clear and are
explained in verbal as well as written form.
• Students may benefit from using assistive technology.
• Use as many verbal descriptions as possible to supplement material presented on blackboard or
overhead. Students with a learning disability often have a marked preference for an auditory
mode of learning.
• Present information in a range of formats – handouts, worksheets, overheads, videos – to meet
a diversity of learning styles.
• Use a variety of teaching methods so that students are not constrained by needing to acquire
information by reading only. Where possible, present material diagrammatically - in lists, flow
charts, concept maps etc.
• Keep diagrams uncluttered and use color wherever appropriate to distinguish and highlight.
• Recording lectures will assist those students who have handwriting or coordination problems and
those who write slowly as well as those who have a tendency to mishear or misquote.
• Students will be more likely to follow correctly the sequence of material in a lecture if they are
able to listen to the material more than once.
• Repetition is important for students with a learning disability. Wherever possible, ensure that key
statements and instructions are repeated or highlighted in some way.
• Students with learning disability may benefit from having oral rather than written feedback on
their written assignments.
• Do not make students over-anxious about making mistakes, asking questions, getting through
the work or meeting learning goals.
Assessment Strategies
• Allow extensions to assignment deadlines if extensive reading has been set.
• Students with learning disability may take longer to organize thoughts and sequence material. In
drafting an essay some students will write, read on to tape, listen and then correct. This all takes
time. Students will benefit from discussing their outlines with particular attention being paid to
appropriate relationships and connections between points.
• Encourage the student to submit an early draft of assignments to allow the opportunity for
feedback to the student as a formative process.

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• Students with learning disability will need extra time in an examination for reading and analyzing
questions, and for planning their answers. Some students will request that examination questions
be read to them. Some students may prefer to dictate their answers to a scribe. They will need
a venue which is quiet and distraction-free.
• Many students with a learning disability will prefer oral assessment to written. Allow students to
read written examination responses aloud and correct as they read. Some students need to hear
what they have written in order to determine whether they have written what they intended. An
oral examination is not an easy option for students. Give the same time for an oral examination
as for a written exam but allow extra time for the student to listen to and refine or edit taped
responses. In your assessment, allowance should be made for the fact that spoken answers are
likely to be less coherent than written answers.
• Keep short your written examination instructions and sentences within examination questions.
Questions using bullet points, lists or distinct parts are more likely to be correctly interpreted.
• Because students with learning disability find it difficult to read multiple-choice questions in a way
that allows them to appreciate subtle changes in the arrangement of words, short-answer
questions will be a better test of their knowledge.
• Many students with learning disability are chronic misspellers and use dictionaries only with great
difficulty. Allow students to use a word processor in examinations so that they have access to a
spell-checker.

SUMMARY

• The research process involves identification and definition of research problem, statement of
research problem, writing theoretical and conceptual framework,
defining terms, formulating hypothesis, choosing research design,
identifying target population and sampling, data collection, data
processing, data analysis and interpretation, report preparation and Watch a video about
information dissemination. children with learning
. disabilities. How was
the instruction given to
them?

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 MIDTERM WORKSHEETS
Name: Degree
Program:

MODULE 4: INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Learning Activity

Design a plan that shows the different approaches and models in an inclusive classroom. See sample in
Google Classroom.

Assessment

Evaluate other group’s plan. How is inclusion reflected in the plan? If you were the one who designed it,
would you follow the same or different? Why?

MODULE 5: THEORIES OF LEARNING INFLUENTIAL TO SPECIAL EDUCATION PRACTICES

Learning Activity

Study the case study below and discuss with a partner one of the questions below.

Math Problem Problems

Case 1
Vernon Jackson told students to read the first problem on the worksheet as he handed it out. He
then told them, “I will tell you how to do the first problem, and you will do the rest.” In front of him,
Linda looked over the ten problems on the worksheet and let out a depressing sigh. “Not again,” she
said to herself, followed up with, “I hate doing these problems.”
When Mr. Jackson reached the last row, he continued, “OK. Read the first problem while I tell you
how it’s done.” Writing I on the board, he was cognizant of his students’ general dislike of word problems
and listened for disparaging remarks about the assignment. Linda didn’t attend to the directions and
instead, began to write a note to her friend Cory Franks.
Mr. Jackson then described how to complete the problem, “For this problem, you will need to use
only the important information and disregard the rest of the information.” As Linda glanced at the first
problem, which was about camping, she remarked to herself, “Great, I don’t even like camping, she
remarked to herself, “Great, I don’t even like camping.”
“Linda,” Mr. Jackson asked, “How many campers like hotdogs?” Linda, surprised that he called on
her, responded with a blank look on her face. “OK,” Mr. Jackson continued, “look at the problem and tell
me how many campers are eating hotdogs out of 20 campers?”
Linda then responded, “12?”
“Good,” Mr. Jackson remarked, while leaning against his desk. He then continued, “If each student
eats three hotdogs, how many hotdogs are needed?”
As Linda looks around, students are busy writing down what Mr. Jackson had said; however,
because she missed what was said, she scribbled out her own computation. “Ah, 27?” Linda responds.
“No, Linda,” Mr. Jackson replies. “Blaine, how many hotdogs are needed?” Blain correctly responds
“36”, and Mr. Jackson smiles and tells him he is correct.

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 “Finally, if hotdogs are 30 cents a piece, how much money is needed to purchase hotdogs for the
campers?” Mr. Jackson asks the class.
In a chorus of voices, they respond, “$10.80.”
“Now, you do the rest,” he instructs his class, despite the fact that many students have already
begun working on the second word problem. It’s not surprising than many of the students are working
independently because they have been reviewing word problems for the past two weeks.
Mr. Jackson then lets the students work on the remainder of the problems while he sits at his desk
and looks for worksheets for the next portion of his lesson. Mr. Jackson likes to tell students how to
complete problems. He feels that students understand his directions because he is a verbal person who
believes that all students need to become auditory learners if they hope to progress into the higher
grades.
To Linda, a student with a learning disability, completing math word problems is just about the
worst thing. In addition to her reading problems, she does poorly in math, often failing to pick up concepts
that other students easily understand. Overt time, despite the different math teachers, Linda has grown
to dislike math and often avoids anything relating to math. For example, when Mr. Jackson informs
students that they can complete one extra worksheet per week for bonus points, Linda flatly refuses, in
spite of her borderline grade of a “D.”

Case Questions:
1. From behavioral theory, what could you do to help Linda improve her math skills?

___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

2. What components of social learning theory could you use to teach this math lesson?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

3. What could you do to help Linda with her self-efficacy for solving work problems?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

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Assessment

Identify classroom practices that apply the theories discussed.

Theories Classroom Practices

1. Behavioral

2. Cognitive

3. Social

4. Constructivist

MODULE 6: STUDENTS WITH MENTAL RETARDATION

Learning Activity

1. named and described the assessment procedures to screen and assess children with mental
retardation; and
2. develop a lesson plan for inclusive education for children with mental retardation

Collaborate with an online partner. Then, answer the following questions:

1. In what ways are the classifications of mental retardation different from each other?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

2. What do the causes of mental retardation imply to you?

___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

3. How would you know that a child has mental retardation?

___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
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ASSESSMENT

With a group, prepare a lesson plan for inclusive education for children with mental retardation. See
sample in Google Classroom. Lesson plan presentation follows.

MODULE 7: STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

Learning Activity
With a group (different group or by specialization), prepare a lesson plan for inclusive education for
children with learning disabilities. See sample in Google Classroom. Lesson plan presentation follows.

ASSESSMENT

Teaching Demonstration in a Role Play. Using the lesson you have designed, prepare to
demonstrate the lesson in class. Your groupmates will take the role of your students.

GRACE M. NINI, LPT, MAEd

Assistant Professor I

Reviewed by: Approved by:

EPHRAIM P. MAGUAD, LPT, M. Ed. MARILYN T. ALCALA, LPT, Ph. D.

Program Head, BSED Dean

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