Thermal Physics

Thermal physics
Curriculum content
5.1 Thermal physics
The aim of module 5 (Newtonian world and astrophysics) is to show the impact Newtonian
mechanics has on physics. The microscopic motion of atoms can be modelled using Newton’s
laws and hence provide us with an understanding of macroscopic quantities such as pressure and
temperature.
This section sets out to provide knowledge and understanding of temperature, matter, specific heat
capacity and specific latent heat with contexts involving heat transfer and change of phase (HSW1,
2, 5, 7). Experimental work can be carried out to safely investigate specific heat capacity of
materials (HSW4). It also provides an opportunity to discuss how Newton’s laws can be used to
model the behaviour of gases (HSW1) and significant opportunities for the analysis and
interpretation of data (HSW5).
5.1.1 Temperature
(a) thermal equilibrium
(b) absolute scale of temperature (i.e. the thermodynamic scale) that does not depend on a
property of any particular substance
(c) temperature measurements both in degrees Celsius (°C) and in kelvin (K)
(d) T (K) ≈  (°C) + 273.
5.1.2 Solid, liquid and gas
(a) solids, liquids and gases in terms of the spacing, ordering and motion of atoms or
molecules
(b) simple kinetic model for solids, liquids and gases
(c) Brownian motion in terms of the kinetic model of matter and a simple demonstration using
smoke particles suspended in air
(d) internal energy as the sum of the random distribution of kinetic and potential energies
associated with the molecules of a system
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Version 2 1 © OCR 2020

Thermal physics
(e) absolute zero (0 K) as the lowest limit for temperature; the temperature at which a
substance has minimum internal energy
(f) increase in the internal energy of a body as its temperature rises
(g) changes in the internal energy of a substance during change of phase; constant
temperature during change of phase.
5.1.3 Thermal properties of materials

(a) specific heat capacity of a substance; the equation E = mcΔ
(b)(i) an electrical experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a metal or a liquid
(ii) techniques and procedures used for an electrical method to determine the specific heat
capacity of a metal block and a liquid
(c) specific latent heat of fusion and specific latent heat of vaporisation; E = mL
(d)(i) an electrical experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion and vaporisation
(ii) techniques and procedures used for an electrical method to determine the specific latent
heat of a solid and a liquid.
5.1.4 Ideal gases

(a) amount of substance in moles; Avogadro constant NA equals 6.02 x 1023 mol–1
(b) model of kinetic theory of gases
(c) pressure in terms of this model
(d)(i) the equation of state of an ideal gas pV = nRT, where n is the number of moles
(ii) techniques and procedures used to investigate pV = constant (Boyle’s law) and

P
= constant
T
(iii) an estimation of absolute zero using variation of gas temperature with pressure
1 2
(e) the equation pV = Nm c where N is the number of particles (atoms or molecules) and c 2 is
3
the mean square speed
(f) root mean square (r.m.s.) speed; mean square speed
R
(g) the Boltzmann constant; k =
NA
1 3
(h) pV = NkT ; m c2 = kT
2 2
(i) internal energy of an ideal gas.

Thermal physics
Thinking conceptually: Approaches to teaching the content
Approaches to teaching the content
This topic can be approached from various starting points. Students will have a variety of prior
experiences of the content depending on the GCSE science courses they studied. Teachers may
choose differing paths between the topics or within the topics themselves.
The spacing, ordering and motion of atoms and molecules as solids, liquids and gases will refer
back to work in key stage 3 or earlier but will need sound reinforcement to ensure an
understanding which underpins the remainder of the topic at A level and beyond. The
understanding of energy transfers and change of phase will deepen the understanding from the
earlier key stages.
Calculations, such as those in Learner Resource 2, using specific heat capacity demonstrate the
relationship between internal energy and temperature, whilst those involving specific latent heat
support the understanding of changes in internal energy at the change of phase, with the transfer
of energy to or from the material with no associated temperature change. Practical activity
(PAG) 11.2 allows learners to determine specific heat capacity both by an electric means and/or a
means based on the method of mixtures.
The most common teaching sequences for ideal gases (section 5.1.4) start either with the
macroscopic measurements which can be made and related in simple mathematical form leading
on to the kinetic theory, or the converse, dealing with the more abstract notion of kinetic theory and
then observing how this underpins those macroscopic measurements of pressure, temperature
and volume.
Combining the macroscopic and microscopic gas equations provides an example of how
macroscopic measurements and modelling can provide estimates of microscopic quantities such
as particle speeds.
It is important to emphasise to students both the random nature of the motion of individual particles
in a gas and how, due to the large number of particles involved, making assumptions about this
completely random motion can lead to models that account for predictable macroscopic behaviour.
As is noted in the additional guidance, the assumptions made to support the kinetic theory are:
 large number of molecules in random, rapid motion

 particles (atoms or molecules) occupy negligible volume compared to the volume of gas
 all collisions are perfectly elastic and the duration of the collisions is negligible compared to
the time between collisions
 negligible forces between particles except during collisions.
Considering the relevance of the effect each of these assumptions on simple systems, such as a
balloon, if the collisions between particles were not perfectly elastic it could be argued that there
would be an increase in temperature and if the particles have less kinetic energy after each
collision there would be a reduction in pressure, which is not the case.

Thermal physics
The basic macroscopic relationships can be demonstrated:
pV = constant (at constant temperature) using Boyle’s Law apparatus
V  T (at constant pressure), Charles’s Law. That volume reduces as temperature

decreases can be demonstrated dramatically by collapsing a can or using the reduction in
pressure in a conical flask to draw a hard boiled egg into the flask whilst more quantitative
activities are detailed in this Cleapss resource.
p  T (at constant volume). Using a constant volume gas thermometer can achieve a
surprisingly accurate value for absolute zero, working with simple equipment in the school
laboratory, as detailed in the Practical Activity (PAG) 8.1.
This activity also lends itself to the understanding of absolute zero as a concept and the nature of
its measurement independent of the properties of any specific material.
The microscopic behaviour can be observed as Brownian motion, which was first documented in
1827, but not understood to be demonstrating the kinetic theory of atoms and molecules in
constant movement. The work of Einstein and others in the early 1900s linked the observations of
Brownian motion to the motion of atoms and molecules, the existence of which was still not fully
established beyond doubt. Students may find it reassuring and interesting that Albert Einstein
expressed his discomfort with the idea that completely random processes were behind the
workings of the universe, with the comment recorded that “God does not play dice”, which can lead
to some very interesting discussions, or act as a prompt to the memory of the study of this topic.
It is important to reinforce the point that the particles in a gas are behaving completely randomly
even though, due to the large number of particles involved, the outcome of this random behaviour
is a set of predictable rules. This may be referenced to radioactive decay, the other topic where the
exact moment of decay for an individual nucleus is entirely unpredictable, yet a half-life can be
calculated to accurately model the decay of several billion nuclei.
1 2
The derivation of the formula pV = Nm c is not required, but being able to derive, or at least
3
knowledge of how it is derived, from first principles may aid understanding.
1 2 1 2 3
It is expected that learners will be able to link pV = Nm c and pV = NkT to derive m c = kT.
3 2 2
The Boltzmann constant is used when considering molecules rather than moles in the context of
the gas equations above, with the number of moles multiplied by molar gas constant (nR) being
equal to the number of molecules multiplied by the Boltzmann constant (Nk).
1 2 3
Using the formula derived above, m c = kT, this theory can be extended to give the kinetic
2 2
3
energy of a single molecule E = kT. Thus the random translational kinetic energy of an ideal gas
2
is equivalent to its internal energy and directly proportional to its absolute temperature in kelvin.

Thermal physics
Thermal physics
Common misconceptions or difficulties students may have
Learners’ misconceptions in this topic begin with their understanding of temperature and its units
which will pre-date their study of physics, and possibly any science, at school. Measurements in
degrees Celsius (°C), and the idea of centigrade, are perceived as being fundamental rather than
inferred from a measurement which is dependent on a property of a material.
There is also a tendency to blur the distinction between heat (measured in joule) and temperature,
although changing the heat content of a body will change its temperature.
Even at A level there will be learners who do not see the need for melting ice to be in a beaker of
water to obtain a reference zero degrees Celsius, assuming that ice itself exists only at zero rather
than being able to exist at lower temperatures.
Learner Resource 1 addresses some ideas of the creation of temperature scales and design
factors affecting the operation of thermometers linking to energy transfer as well as concepts of
precision and range of instruments.
Although learners are familiar with gases as a state of matter from earlier studies in science, they
tend to have developed misconceptions such as gases having no significant mass. Most learners
are unable to give a correct order of magnitude estimate of the mass of a given volume of air due
to the effect of buoyancy on objects such as air filled balloons. The density of air is 1.3 kg m–3 so a
balloon would contain a mass of air in the order of 2 g. Try weighing an uninflated balloon and then
inflated (or vice versa, although rapid deflation may cause the balloon to disintegrate).
Learners have encountered kinetic theory and possibly gas laws earlier in their education. Most
are able to understand the particles in a box explanation of the cause of gas pressure; however,
applying equations and mathematics to the model is difficult for most and may be best used as a
demonstration of how assumptions can be made and a model derived as there is not a
requirement for learners to demonstrate the derivation in the examination. Learner Resource 3 is
intended to give learners the opportunity to apply their knowledge in an unfamiliar scientific context
with some element of synopticity.

Thermal physics
Title Link Description
Interactive https://phet.colorado.edu/en/ PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado

simulations simulation/legacy/balloons-and-
buoyancy An interesting interactive simulation allowing variation of pressure, volume and
temperature capable of demonstrating Brownian motion, as well as the inter-relationship
between pressure, volume and temperature.
Plus a straightforward computer model covering the basic relationships between

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/ temperature, pressure and volume.
simulation/legacy/gas-properties
Gas law: http://science.cleapss.org.uk/ CLEAPSS resources on gas laws and equipment containing many ideas for experiments
Equipment and Resource-Info/PP028-Investigating- and equipment.
apparatus gas-laws-1-pressure-volume-Boyle-s-
law.aspx
Next Time http://www.arborsci.com/next-time- Paul Hewitt, Arbor Scientific, Free to download

questions questions
These questions in the gases section address misconceptions and stimulate discussion:
“Weight of air”, “Balanced balls” and “Balanced Balloons” address the misconception that
the “empty space” around us has no mass.
“Wood and Iron” and “Deep Glass” continue this theme with conceptual challenges.
“Air filled floating balloon” links gas pressure and volume with pressure in a liquid.
Similarly in the thermodynamics and thermal expansion section: “Helium Temperature” and
“Twice as Hot” address absolute temperature.

Thermal physics
Energy Teaching Advanced Physics, from the Institute of Physics
https://spark.iop.org/collections/ Episodes 600 to 603 on kinetic theory have background ideas along with activities and
kinetic-theory worksheets for learners.
https://spark.iop.org/collections/ Episodes 607 and 608 have supporting information for Specific heat capacity and Specific
thermal-physics latent heat.

Thermal physics
Thinking contextually
The range of contexts involving temperature, phases of materials (solid, liquid and gas), the
thermal properties of materials and the behaviour of ideal gases is extensive.
At the simplest level the measurement of temperature in everyday situations based on properties
of materials. Considering the use of a variety of thermometers in differing applications can lead to
consideration of aspects of measurement such as range, precision, accuracy, linearity, response
time and ease of use, linking to section 2.2.1 on measurement and uncertainties.
The properties of solids, liquids and gases have an immediate application in the use of materials
around us, and complement the understanding of materials in section 3.4. In particular the
application of the measurement of density and pressure can be applied to objects at different
heights above earth’s surface or depths under the sea.
The thermal properties of materials provide significant opportunities for synoptic questions, linking
specific heat capacity or specific latent heat to electrical energy, as in PAG 11.2. Other energy
transfers can be considered and linked to increases or decreases in temperature, an example of
which could be the temperature rise of a brake disc as a car is brought to a standstill.
Ideal gas behaviour can be related to balloons, with many text books using examples of fixed
volume hot air balloons, balloons filled with a gas lighter than air and weather balloons whose
volume changes with altitude. Other applications include the internal combustion engine, whose
theory is not required by the specification, but for which the concept of work done on or by a gas is
very pertinent, and addressed at a simple level in PAG 8.3 which asks learners to estimate the
work done by a quantity of gas as its temperature is increased.
Whilst the Boltzmann constant is not apparent in such obvious concepts, but is the basis of many
calculations relating to energy in chemical reactions and bridges the gap between the microscopic
physics at atomic and molecular scale and the macroscopic physics of larger quantities of matter.

Thermal physics
The Learner Resource 3 The student sheet contains all of the information required to run this activity.
refrigerator
Different types https://www.atp-instrumentation.co.uk/ ATP Ltd, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire

of thermometer different-types-of-thermometer/
This page, and those linked from it, give an idea of the range of thermometer types
available, liquid in glass, bi-metal strip, infra-red and thermocouple along with
applications for each.
Animated http://www.animatedengines.com/ Matt Keveney, Animated Engines

engines
Simple animations showing the operation of a wide variety of engines from the
earliest steam engines through to the four stroke petrol engine and jet propulsion.
Designing a Learner Resource 1 As a practical activity this experiment in designing a thermometer can be credited
liquid in a towards the Practical Endorsement, particularly as it is intended to be investigative.
glass
thermometer The student sheet is provided in Word as an outline which can be amended to suit
your particular requirements and the availability of equipment. Should you not have
the curriculum time or equipment an alternative sheet allows for a class or
homework based consideration of the factors involved.
The method of Learner Resource 2 The student sheet contains the information needed to run this activity. The answers
mixtures – to the questions posed are given below for your use.
Calculations
involving Question 1: 1750 J kg–1 K–1
specific heat
capacity and Question 2: 3500 J kg–1 K–1
specific latent
Thermal physics
refrigerator


engines
glass
heat Question 3: Teachers can credit any reasonable explanation.
Question 4:
Energy required to melt ice Energy from steam
Ice from –4.0 °C to 0 °C; 50 × 4 × 2100, Condensing; m × 2.3 × 106,

Thermal physics
refrigerator


engines
glass
Ice to liquid; 50 × 3.3 × 105
Cooling as water from
100 to 0 °C; m × 4200 × 100
1.69 × 107 J m × 2.72 × 106 J

Thermal physics
refrigerator


engines
glass
Mass of steam = 6.2 kg
Estimating Practical activities tab at: Practical activity PAG 8.1. Learners take measurements relating to the behaviour of
absolute zero gases in order to determine a value for absolute zero.
from gas
Thermal physics
refrigerator


engines
glass
pressure and https://www.ocr.org.uk/qualifications/as-

volume and-a-level/physics-a-h156-h556-from-
2015/planning-and-teaching/
Investigating https://www.ocr.org.uk/qualifications/as- Practical activity PAG 8.2. Learners take measurements relating to the behaviour of
the and-a-level/physics-a-h156-h556-from- gases in order to determine the relationship between pressure and volume of a
relationship 2015/planning-and-teaching/ gas.
Thermal physics
refrigerator


engines
glass
between
pressure and
volume in gas
Estimating the https://www.ocr.org.uk/qualifications/as- Practical activity PAG 8.3. Learners estimate the work done by a fixed quantity of
work done by a and-a-level/physics-a-h156-h556-from- gas as its temperature increases.
gas as its 2015/planning-and-teaching/
Thermal physics
refrigerator


engines
glass
temperature
increases

Thermal physics
refrigerator


engines
glass
Determining https://www.ocr.org.uk/qualifications/as- Practical activity PAG 11.2. An investigation into the specific heat capacity of a
the specific and-a-level/physics-a-h156-h556-from- material where the learner defines the activity, identifies the variables and obtains,
heat capacity 2015/planning-and-teaching/ analyses and evaluates relevant data.
of a material

Thermal physics

Thermal Physics

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Thermal physics

(a) thermal equilibrium

(d) T (K) ≈  (°C) + 273.

5.1.2 Solid, liquid and gas

(b) simple kinetic model for solids, liquids and gases

Version 2 1 © OCR 2020

(f) increase in the internal energy of a body as its temperature rises

5.1.3 Thermal properties of materials

5.1.4 Ideal gases

(c) pressure in terms of this model

(ii) techniques and procedures used to investigate pV = constant (Boyle’s law) and

(f) root mean square (r.m.s.) speed; mean square speed

Version 2 2 © OCR 2020

 large number of molecules in random, rapid motion

Version 2 3 © OCR 2020

pV = constant (at constant temperature) using Boyle’s Law apparatus

V  T (at constant pressure), Charles’s Law. That volume reduces as temperature

Version 2 4 © OCR 2020

Version 2 6 © OCR 2020

Interactive https://phet.colorado.edu/en/ PhET Interactive Simulations, University of Colorado

Plus a straightforward computer model covering the basic relationships between

Next Time http://www.arborsci.com/next-time- Paul Hewitt, Arbor Scientific, Free to download

Version 2 7 © OCR 2020

Energy Teaching Advanced Physics, from the Institute of Physics

Version 2 8 © OCR 2020

Version 2 9 © OCR 2020

Different types https://www.atp-instrumentation.co.uk/ ATP Ltd, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire

Animated http://www.animatedengines.com/ Matt Keveney, Animated Engines

Different types https://www.atp-instrumentation.co.uk/ ATP Ltd, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire

Animated http://www.animatedengines.com/ Matt Keveney, Animated Engines

heat Question 3: Teachers can credit any reasonable explanation.

Energy required to melt ice Energy from steam

Ice from –4.0 °C to 0 °C; 50 × 4 × 2100, Condensing; m × 2.3 × 106,

Different types https://www.atp-instrumentation.co.uk/ ATP Ltd, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire

Animated http://www.animatedengines.com/ Matt Keveney, Animated Engines

Ice to liquid; 50 × 3.3 × 105

Cooling as water from

100 to 0 °C; m × 4200 × 100

1.69 × 107 J m × 2.72 × 106 J

Different types https://www.atp-instrumentation.co.uk/ ATP Ltd, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire

Animated http://www.animatedengines.com/ Matt Keveney, Animated Engines

Mass of steam = 6.2 kg

Different types https://www.atp-instrumentation.co.uk/ ATP Ltd, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire

Animated http://www.animatedengines.com/ Matt Keveney, Animated Engines

pressure and https://www.ocr.org.uk/qualifications/as-

Different types https://www.atp-instrumentation.co.uk/ ATP Ltd, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire

Animated http://www.animatedengines.com/ Matt Keveney, Animated Engines

Different types https://www.atp-instrumentation.co.uk/ ATP Ltd, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire

Animated http://www.animatedengines.com/ Matt Keveney, Animated Engines

Version 2 16 © OCR 2020

Different types https://www.atp-instrumentation.co.uk/ ATP Ltd, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire

Animated http://www.animatedengines.com/ Matt Keveney, Animated Engines

Version 2 17 © OCR 2020

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