PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

2022-23
~ SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

DONE BY GROUP 3 –
o AREEN
o KSHITHI
o MICHELLE
o PIYUSH
o PRAGYA
( GRADE XI )
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our Respected

Principal Ms. Latha Ma’am for providing us with the necessary facility
for the project. We would also like to extend our special thanks to our
Physics teacher Ms. Deepthy Ma’am for her able guidance and constant
support during the completion of the project.

DATE – AREEN
12th January 2023 KSHITHI
MICHELLE
PIYUSH
PRAGYA
( GRADE XI )

TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO. TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 2

2. BEHAVIOUR OF 3
GASES

3. KINETIC THEORY 4
OF AN IDEAL GAS

4. LAW OF 5
EQUIPARTITION
OF ENERGY
5. SPECIFIC HEAT 6
CAPACITY

INTRODUCTION
Boyle, Avogadro, Newton, and many others have tried to explain the
behavior of gases by considering that gases are made up of tiny atomic
particles. The actual kinetic theory got established more than 150 years
later. Kinetic Theory explains the behavior of gases based on the idea
that the gas consists of continuously moving atoms or molecules. This is
possible as the intermolecular forces, which are short-range forces
necessary for solids and liquids, can be neglected for gases.
The Kinetic Theory was further developed by Maxwell, Boltzmann, and
others and it turned out to be remarkably successful to this day. It gives a
molecular interpretation of the pressure and temperature of a gas and is
consistent with gas laws and Avogadro’s hypothesis. It correctly
explains the specific heat capacities of many gases. It also relates
measurable properties of gases like viscosity, conduction, and diffusion
with molecular parameters, yielding estimates of molecular sizes and
masses.

BEHAVIOR OF GASES
Gases at low pressures and high temperatures much above that liquefy or
solidify approximately satisfy a relationship between pressure, volume,
and temperature.
This relationship can be stated by the following laws –
 1. Avogadro’s law – the number of molecules per unit volume is the
same for all gases at a fixed temperature and pressure. This number
in 22.4 liters of any gas is 6.023 * 1023.
2. Boyle’s law – if the temperature of a gas is kept constant, then the
pressure of a given mass of gas varies inversely with its volume.
3. Charles’ law - if the pressure of a gas is kept constant, then the
volume of the gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.
4. Dalton’s law of partial pressures – the total pressure of a mixture
of ideal gases is the sum of partial pressures.
5. Ideal gas law – a gas that satisfies the ideal gas equation ( PV =
nRT ) exactly at all pressures and temperatures is said to be an
ideal gas. This is a simple theoretical model of a gas. No real gas is
truly ideal.

KINETIC THEORY OF AN IDEAL GAS

The kinetic theory of gases illustrates the molecular structure of the gas
in terms of the abundance of submicroscopic particles. The theory also
demonstrates that gas pressure occurs because of the particles striking
against each other and the surface of the vessel. The kinetic theory of
gases also describes characteristics such as temperature, coherence, and
thermal conductivity.
The importance of the kinetic theory is that it assists in forming a
relationship between the perceptible attributes and the microscopic
phenomenon. In other words, the kinetic theory of gases also assists us
to analyze the behavior of the molecules. Usually, the molecules of
gases are constantly in motion and they conduct strikes against each
other and the surfaces of the vessels.
The kinetic theory was stated in the 19th century by Maxwell,
Boltzmann, and others. Kinetic theory illustrates the reaction of gases
based on the view that the gas consists of swiftly flowing atoms or
molecules.

LAW OF EQUIPARTITION OF
ENERGY
Equipartition of energy states that in a thermal equilibrium system, equal
distribution of energy will be connected with each degree of freedom on
average.
The invention of this law was done by the physicists named Ludwig
Boltzmann from Germany & James Clerk Maxwell from Scotland. If we
apply formulas to define this law then the law states:
“A system of equilibrium molecules at established Temperature (T) will
consist of a standard ½ kT energy correlated with each degree of
freedom where ‘k’ is seen as the Boltzmann constant. Additionally, if
there is any other degree of freedom providing energy which is quite
prospective, then it will have another ½ kT correlated with it. In a
system where ‘s’ is the degree of freedom & ‘t’ has prospective energies.
The average energy in totality will be ½(s+t)kT. Let us take an example-
a particle of gas contains three degrees of freedom (coordinates of the
particle). Therefore, it will have an average energy of 3/2 kT in totality.
Hence, for the particle in a solid form, the vibrational movement consists
of possible energy and also kinetic energy. With both modes
contributing to a term ½ kT, it will result in an average energy of 3 kT in
totality.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The specific heat capacity is the amount of heat absorbed or evolved by

the substance to change its temperature by one unit
If specific heat capacity is denoted as ‘c’, mass as ‘m’, energy absorbed
or evolved as ‘q’, and change in temperature as ‘∆t’, then
C = Q / m*∆T
SI unit – J/k-kg
CGS unit – J/°C-g
 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF
MONOATOMIC GASES
o The number of independent ways in which a molecule of gas can
move is called the degree of freedom.
o it is an independent physical parameter that describes the state of a
physical system. The degrees of freedom refers to the number of
ways a molecule in the gas phase may move, rotate, or vibrate in
space.
o The molecules of a monatomic gas have 3 degrees of freedom.
o The average energy of a molecule at temperature T is = 3kBT/2
o Total internal energy of 1 mole of monoatomic gas, U = 3kBT/2
*NA = 3RT/2
o Molar specific heat capacity at constant volume, CV = dU/dT =
3RT/2
o For an ideal gas, CP-CV = R => (Mayer’s formula)
o Hence, CP = 5R/2
 o CP/CV which is denoted as ɣ = 5/3

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF

DIATOMIC GASES

A diatomic molecule is treated as a rigid rotator, like a dumbbell, and

has 5 degrees of freedom – 3 translational and 2 rotational.
The internal energy of a mole of such gas has been derived below when
it is considered as rigid or vibrational.
 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF
POLYATOMIC GASES
In general, a polyatomic molecule has 3 translational, 3 rotational
degrees of freedom, and a certain number (f) of vibrational modes.
According to the law of equipartition of energy, it is easily seen that one
mole of such gas has
U = [(3kbT)/2 + (3kbT)/2 +(fkbT)]NA
 
or 
CV = (3+f)R, CP=(4+f)R
Hence, Cp/CV = (4+f) / (3+f)
CP – CV = R for any ideal gas whether it is mono, do, or polyatomic.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF

SOLIDS
Solids are forms of matter having characteristics like strong forces of
intermolecular interaction, rigidity, proper shape, structure, etc. Solids
can be heated, so the capacity of specific heat for solids can be
determined. The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J/Kg/K. 
The specific heat capacity of solids is defined as the amount of energy
provided to a unit mass of any solid substance so that its temperature is
raised by 1°C. 
To determine the specific heat capacity, we will have to make use of the
law of equipartition of energy. This law states that for a system in
thermal equilibrium, there will be a certain amount of average energy for
each degree of freedom a molecule has.
For example, a gas molecule moving in three-dimensional space has
three coordinates, so the value of the degree of freedom for that
molecule would be 3.
Let us consider any solid having N atoms. Each atom is allowed to move
freely but only in one coordinate axis or 1D space. The expression for
the total energy U is given as:
U = 3kBTNA= 3RT
We will use the equation for the first law of thermodynamics given
below:
                                                               ΔQ =   ΔU+P ΔV    

The first law states: “Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only
be converted from one form to another.” 
Here, PV can be eliminated as the volume change is negligible for
solids. 
 
 Therefore, the expression for molar-specific heat capacity (heat capacity
calculated for one mole of solid) will be:
C=   ΔQ / ΔT=   ΔU   /ΔT
C = 3R = 24.94 J/K-1 mol -1 
 C here is the molar-specific heat capacity
Q is the heat given and ∆T is the temperature change. 
 
Heat capacity is more or less an intrinsic property. This means that it is
an attribute of any particular substance. The heat capacity is calculated
with the help of a Calorimeter. The bomb calorimeter always indicates
constant volume values. Another type of calorimeter known as the
coffee cup calorimeter is associated with finding heat capacity at
constant pressure. 

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF

WATER
Liquids like water have fewer forces of intermolecular attraction
compared to solids. Liquids do not have a definite shape but they take
the shape and size of the container they are in. The concept of
equipartition of energy is used to calculate the expression for the specific
heat capacity of water.

The specific heat capacity of water is defined as the amount of energy

required that is given to a unit of any liquid so that the temperature of
the liquid is increased by 1°C.

The chemical constituents of water include two components, namely

hydrogen, and oxygen, which are present in the ratio 2:1. The ratio
specifies that one molecule of water will have two atoms of hydrogen
and one atom of oxygen making a total of three atoms. So, these three
atoms will be free to move across three dimensions.
Hence, we will have to find the total energy associated with one mole of
water.
 The total energy becomes:
U =3*3kBTNA= 9RT                                          
Now, the expression for molar specific heat capacity [C] becomes:
C=   ΔQ /  ΔT=   ΔU   /ΔT= 9R
C= 98.31 J mol-1K-1
C = 74.7 J mol-1K-1                  
THANK YOU!