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Received: 16 April 2020 Revised: 6 November 2020 Accepted: 16 November 2020 IET Electric Power Applications
DOI: 10.1049/elp2.12031

REVIEW

An overview of various faults detection methods in synchronous

generators

Mohsen Mostafaei | Jawad Faiz

Centre of Excellence on Applied Electromagnetic Abstract

Systems, School of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, College of Engineering, University of
Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Correspondence
Jawad Faiz, Centre of Excellence on Applied
Electromagnetic Systems, School of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, College of Engineering,
University of Tehran, Tehran 1439957131, Iran.
Email: jfaiz@ut.ac.ir
Synchronous generator (SG) plays a vital and critical role in the power system by sup-
plying electric power to consumers. Various faults in SGs can cause some catastrophic
events such as power disruption or blackout. These faults can be classified into two
electrical and mechanical faults. Short circuit in stator windings and field winding are
electrical fault while bearing, static/dynamic eccentricity, and broken damper bars faults
are mechanical one. Unlike the induction machines, there are no much researches in SGs
condition monitoring owing to its complex behaviour against the faults. Herein, the SG
modelling approaches are presented briefly to elaborate shortcoming and challenging
issues in the modelling, and then a comprehensive review of various electrical and me-
chanical fault detection methods is presented.

1 | INTRODUCTION and the mechanical faults include:

Synchronous generator (SG) is one of the most important � Bearing failure.

apparatus in the power systems, which supply the electrical en-
ergy to consumers. The SGs are highly reliable equipment but
the faults are unavoidable and can interrupt the electrical power
supply. Since the SG reliability is a critical issue in the power
systems, various protection techniques have been so far pro-
posed to enhance the power system reliability. Although reli-
ability enhancement improves by redundancy (adding another
SG as the backup unit), it increases the cost, volume and weight
of the power generation system. Hence, an appropriate approach
uses a sensitive and accurate fault diagnosis method to detect the
faults in the incipient level. In large SGs, the stator‐winding fault
is the most prevalent one, and the rotor‐winding fault has second
priority. Figure 1 shows the proportion of the faults which occur
in large electrical machines [1]. Although, there are a lot of work
on the fault diagnosis of induction machines, less attention has
been paid to SGs faults detections. The reason includes
complicated structure and difficult starting process of the
generator. The failure modes can be classified into electrical and
mechanical ones. The electrical faults include [2]:
� Core insulation failure.
� Stator winding or its insulation failure.
� Rotor winding or its insulation failure
� Broken damper bars.
� Rotor mechanical integrity failure.
� Stator mechanical integrity failure.
Creating a real fault on the SG and analysing its behaviour
is mostly destructive and costly, because the SG cannot operate
properly after such experiment. Moreover, a real fault can be
dangerous and cause some problems. That is why modelling
plays a major role in the SGs analysis by reducing costs and
dangers.
Herein, various SGs modelling firstly are presented. Then,
rotor/stator winding faults, as the most probable faults, are
reviewed. Rotor eccentricity and broken damper bars faults are
discussed in details. Finally, the last section provides the
conclusions.
2 | SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
MODELLING
Model‐based approaches are useful for developing a condition
monitoring method in electrical machines [3]. In fact, electrical
machines modelling can help to understand the faulty machine

-
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
© 2021 The Authors. IET Electric Power Applications published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Institution of Engineering and Technology.

IET Electr. Power Appl. 2021;15:391–404. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/elp2 391

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392
- MOSTAFAEI
F I G U R E 1 Proportion of faults in large electrical machines [1]
behaviour. Then, it will be possible to develop a fault detection
method or increase the sensitivity and accuracy of the available
techniques before doing any test.
Speed and accuracy are two important factors in the
model‐based condition monitoring methods. Simple models
are mostly applicable at high speed and low accuracy. However,
the complicated ones have adequate sensitivity and a large
computational burden. Hence, a compromise must be made
between these two factors to achieve a reasonable model.
Modelling can predict the SG behaviour in various con-
ditions such as over‐loading and failures modes, before the
examination; this decreases the experiment costs significantly.
Generally, the SGs are modelled by the following four main
methods:
1. dq0 frame.
2. Winding function approach (WFA).
3. Phase domain model (PDM).
4. Finite element method (FEM).
Each model has its own advantages and disadvantages.
The simplest modelling method of the SG is the use of.
the dq0 frame. Although, this modelling technique is
applicable in symmetrical and balanced conditions, it cannot
be recommended for asymmetrical systems [4]. Owing to the
simplicity of this approach, its computations time is relatively
short, and the parameters of the SG can be calculated quickly.
The dq0 model is a useful tool for prediction of healthy SG
behaviour. At this end, the dq0 parameters are calculated for
stator/rotor windings and damper bars [5]. However, the
dynamic model of the brushless SG has been presented in
Ref. [6] which models the SGs with the turn‐to‐turn fault
(TTF) using the dq0 frame. Simulation and experimental
results show that this model is appropriate for a minor fault,
but it is not preferred for severe faults such as phase‐to‐-
ground or phase‐to‐phase short‐circuits. The reason is that
the high severity faults can lead to asymmetrical and unbal-
anced system. It means that the dq0 model is not accurate for
severe faults detection in the SGs. Moreover, the dq0 models
used in the simulation of the SGs cannot account for the
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AND FAIZ
space harmonics of the winding [7]. To overcome this
shortcoming winding function approach (WFA) has been
proposed for modelling.
Although, the WFA is more complicated than the dq0
model, it is applicable to the asymmetrical systems. This model is
able to estimate the inductances in various healthy and faulty
conditions accurately. The WFA shows the air‐gap magneto‐
motive force (MMF) distribution in the air‐gap due to the
winding [8], which takes into account the space harmonics,
slotting, air‐gap permeance and slot skewing effects [9,10]. The
WFA is capable to model various electrical machines in different
fault conditions and it only needs to consider the effect of fault
in the estimated inductance matrix. The internal fault has been
modelled in Ref. [11] based on the WFA, in which a new
inductance estimation procedure is given, and it also integrate all
space harmonics of the fault modelling. To apply this method
the following assumptions must be considered:
1. Neglecting stator slots effects.
2. Ignoring magnetic hysteresis.
3. Neglecting iron saturation effects.
In the WFA, the general expression of the mutual induc-
tance between winding “i” and winding “j” of electrical ma-
chine is given by:
2π
Lij ðθÞ ¼ μ0 rl ∫ N i ðφ; θÞ:N j ðφ; θÞ:g 1 ðφ; θÞdφ ð1Þ
0
where μ0 is the free space permeability, r is the air gap
average radius, l is the axial stack length of the machine, and
g 1(φ,θ) is the inverse air‐gap length function which is constant
in the case of uniform air gap. Ni(φ,θ) and Nj(φ,θ) are the
winding functions of the windings i and j, φ is the angle along
the inner surface of the stator, and θ is the angular position of
the rotor with respect to the stator reference axis.
Referring to machine parameters, (1) is modified as
follows:
� �
Lmd þ Lmq φB0 2 Lmd þ Lmq
LBA ¼ � ∫ nB ðφ; θÞ:N A ðφ; θÞdφ − � �
3πw2s φB 3πw2s
φB 0
∫ nB ðφ; θÞ:N A ðφ; θÞdφ:cos 2 pðφ − θÞdθ
φB
ð2Þ
where LBA is the mutual inductance between circuit A and
B, and Lmd and Lmq are the d‐axis and q‐axis magnetising
inductances, respectively. Moreover, ws is the amplitude of the
fundamental harmonic of the stator phase winding function of
a healthy machine, nB(φ,θ) is the total turns function of circuit
B, NA(φ,θ) is the total winding function produced by circuit A
and finally p is the number of pole pairs.
By using (2), the stator inductance, rotor inductance, and
mutual inductance between the stator and rotor of the healthy
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MOSTAFAEI AND FAIZ
machine are easily calculated. However, in faulty machine, the
following equation must be solved numerically.
� � ��
dI dL
¼ L 1 Rþ I þ L 1V ð3Þ
dt dt
This is a vector form of the voltage equation. The
mentioned method of the inductance matrix calculation in the
SG improves the accuracy of the SG model in an asymmetrical
system such as phase‐to‐ground fault and phase‐to‐phase fault.
The results reported in Ref. [11] illustrate that experimental
and simulation waveforms are reasonably close.
Apart from severe short circuit faults, rotor misalignment
is another failure that leads to an asymmetrical system and
needs a more accurate model; however, it is slower than the
dq0 frame model. The dynamic eccentricity fault has been
modelled using WFA in Ref. [12], in which the saturation effect
has been included.
To shorten the computation time of WFA and to improve
the accuracy of the dq0 frame method, a hybrid modelling
method has been proposed by merging the two modelling
approaches. It means that the hybrid model [13] can work in
both symmetrical and asymmetrical systems. As shown in
Figure 2, for low severity fault (SC of 5% to 10% of stator
winding turns), dq0 and hybrid method are accurate, but in
saturation condition with more severe faults, the dq0 model
cannot follow the real machine waveform and this error in-
creases in a higher saturation level and more severe faults. In
low severity fault, the faults such as turn‐to‐turn fault (TTF),
stator core does not saturate, but in severe ones, saturation is
common, and the dq0 model cannot work properly. In fact, the
proposed hybrid method makes a compromise between the
accuracy and speed, which can cover the entire fault region
from low to high severity.
The phase domain model (PDM) is more complicated than
the dq0 model, but it does not require the sinusoidal winding
distribution [8]. Besides, the dq0 model has constant induc-
tance matrices [13]. The PDM uses voltage and flux‐linkage
equations in a reference phase to derive the fault model in the
SGs [14–16].
The PDM can deal with the saturation conditions, as
described in Ref. [17]. Some have presented a modified
winding function approach (MWFA), which combines the
WFA and PDM model for detecting the phase to ground faults
[9,18,19]. The MWFA, as an extended version of the WFA, is
used in a non‐uniform air‐gap machine [20]. The dynamic
eccentricity (DE) fault causes the asymmetrical air‐gap; there-
fore, the SGs must be modelled by MWFA [20–22].
The mutual inductance of two arbitrary windings x and y in
respect to the winding distribution nx and ny is as follows [23]:
� �
〈Pnx 〉 〈Pny 〉
Lyx ¼ μ0 rl 2π〈nx ny 〉 2π ð4Þ
〈P〉
where P is the permeance distribution of the air‐gap.
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- 393
Few modelling methods consider the saturation effect in
the faulty SGs. In Ref. [23], the saturation effect has been taken
into account in the induction motor with uniform air‐gap. A
robust non‐linear model of the SGs has been introduced in
Ref. [24] to overcome some non‐linear phenomena such as the
SGs saturation.
The MWFA model of the mixed eccentricity (ME) fault has
been reported in Ref. [25] in which the self‐ and mutual‐in-
ductances are calculated precisely.
Last but not least, the finite element method (FEM) is the
most accurate modelling approach that is able to model various
electrical machines by considering different conditions such as
saturation, core loss, and rotor and stator faults. In fact, FEM
is able to validate other models when a real machine is not
accessible, or an experiment is costly and challenging. More-
over, the magnetic flux pattern can be visualised in FEM
software, which gives a clear viewpoint. Despite of the FEM
modelling accuracy, it needs a powerful computer particularly
for complex calculations. Hence, using this model for fault
detection is difficult and time‐consuming process, and it is only
applicable for validation or optimisation of electrical machines.
FEM has been applied to validate the MWFA modelling
method in the saturation condition and eccentricity fault [26].
Table 1 shows a brief review of various SG modelling methods.
3 | STATOR WINDING FAULTS
According to Figure 1, 60% of the faults are dedicated to the
stator winding. The most probable causes for winding fault are
high temperature, short circuit, electrical discharge, mechanical
stress, magnetic force and insulation deterioration [27].
Generally, stator winding fault diagnosis methods use magnetic
flux, current and voltage or a combination of them.
Although the phase‐to‐phase and phase‐to‐ground faults
are more severe than the inter‐turn winding fault, they can be
detected easier by protection relays in a fraction of second.
Detection of the inter‐turn fault is difficult at the incipient
stage because it does not significantly influence the terminal
currents. Therefore, condition monitoring is essential for inter‐
turn faults to diagnose the fault at starting point and prevent
the following problems. There is a widespread belief that many
phase‐to‐ground or phase‐to‐phase faults started as undetected
TTF, which grew and propagated until disaster finally occurs
[28]. Here, the stator winding fault detection methods are
briefly reviewed in transformers and induction motors, and
then the methods are extended to the SGs. In the incipient
stage, the insulation failure is not dangerous, but if it is not
detected earlier, it may lead to a severe fault. In fact, the TTF in
the winding induces a high‐induced current, which flows in the
shorted loops and causes the winding failure [29]. Detecting
the fault at an early stage decreases the machine damage, and
the machine can be put back into service by rewinding the
stator [30].
Differential relays cannot detect the TTF due to instru-
mental transformers saturation, which reduces its sensitivity.
Hence, other methods such as negative or zero sequence‐based
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394
- MOSTAFAEI
methods should be used for the TTF diagnosis, beside the
differential relay. To detect the stator‐winding fault in the SGs,
various quantities such as current, voltage, and magnetic flux
can be utilised. The following techniques can be applied for
stator fault detection.
3.1 | Magnetic flux
Most electrical and mechanical faults in electrical machines
including stator‐winding fault change the magnetic flux
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AND FAIZ
F I G U R E 2 TTSC fault signature of a real
machine, developed WRSG model using hybrid
approach and dq0 model at (a) 5% (b) 10% (c) 15%
(d) 20% of stator winding short circuit [13]
pattern. As shown in Figure 3, the stator‐winding fault reduces
the magnetic flux near the fault region, and the stray flux in-
creases adversely. Therefore, flux monitoring can be an effec-
tive choice for fault diagnosis. Generally, sensors through
measuring the leakage or air‐gap flux in different parts monitor
the magnetic flux. For flux monitoring in electrical machines,
some sensor such as fluxgate magnetometer, Hall Effect sen-
sors, and the search coil (SC) magnetometer can be used [31].
Each sensor has its frequency range, and the search coil is the
simplest sensors for magnetic flux measurement with high‐
frequency range.
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MOSTAFAEI AND FAIZ
- 395

TA B L E 1 A brief review of various SG modelling methods

Method Applications Advantages Disadvantages

dq0 Symmetrical systems Simple Unable in the fault condition.
Steady‐state conditions Short computational time Sinusoidal winding distribution.
Minor stator winding faults Unable to take into account the effect of all space
harmonics.
Unable to model the saturation.

WFA Asymmetrical systems Accurate Long computational time.

Severe stator winding faults Sensitive
Eccentricity faults For uniform air‐gap

Hybrid Symmetrical and asymmetrical systems More accurate than WFA Moderate computational time.
Minor and severe stator winding faults Simpler than WFA

PDM Internal phase and ground fault in stator Accuracy More complex than dq0.
Transient conditions Independency of winding distribution High computational time.
Considering saturation effect

MWFA Extended WAF Suitable for non‐uniform air‐ gap Complexity.

Phase‐to‐ground fault Predict transient and steady‐ state performance. High computational time.
Rotor dynamic eccentricity Independent of winding distribution.
Mixed eccentricity Considering the saturation
All kinds of faults Considering the effect of all spatial and time
harmonics.

FEM Electrical machine optimisation High accuracy Time consuming.

Validation of modelling methods Modelling of all conditions Need powerful computers.
Checking electrical parameters in various Complexity.
conditions

F I G U R E 3 Magnetic field density distribution in a synchronous generator: (a) healthy condition, (b) inter‐turn short circuit in stator winding [46]

The magnetic flux sensors are used for TTF detection in
transformers by measuring the leakage flux [32,33], and flux‐
linkage [34–37] with high sensitivity. Besides, the air‐gap and
stray magnetic flux monitoring are enthusiastic methods in
induction motors [38–44], which are used for stator TTF
detection. Four different search coils mounted in various parts
of induction motor have been introduced in Ref. [39] to
measure the magnetic flux.
The MMF near the shorted turns has been decreased in the
TTF case [45]. In the healthy case, the MMF is sinusoidal in
space and time, but in faulty case, air‐gap MMF is distorted as
shown in Figure 3 [46].
The search coil can measure total harmonic distortion
(THD) of the air‐gap magnetic flux; the THD of the flux in-
creases the fault in the stator winding; the saturation and
loading conditions can be also taken into account. In addition,
the fault location is identified using the ANN and wavelet
transform [46].
Although the magnetic flux sensor is mostly inexpensive,
reliable, and sensitive, its main drawback is practical limitations
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396
- MOSTAFAEI
during installation [46–48]. In fact, the stray flux sensors are
non‐invasive and inside/in the vicinity of the SG stator
housing, but the stray flux is so small even in the faulty case
and decreases the condition monitoring sensitivity.
In the large SGs, the stator winding fault is mostly severe,
and the TTF is more probable in small ones. Therefore, con-
ventional protection devices can detect the stator fault in a
large SG without any problems, but the TTF in a small SG can
be diagnosed by novel methods like air‐gap flux or stray flux
monitoring. Although the mentioned methods are sensitive
and accurate, the current/voltage‐based methods are more
popular because they do not need additional sensors.
3.2 | Current/voltage signature
Current or voltage is the most common quantity for fault
diagnosis, because they are accessible through a current
transformer (CT), potential transformer (PT), or probes. Un-
like the magnetic flux‐based methods, the current/voltage‐
based ones do not need additional sensors, and they are more
reliable. For the SGs with multi‐branch winding, comparison
of the different branches currents is common, which is known
as differential TTF protection. In.
this method, currents in different branches of stator
winding are compared. In healthy condition, the difference of
the currents is almost zero, but for TTF in the SG, the dif-
ference increases, and differential current circulates between
the windings [49].
Another approach is the residual winding voltage appli-
cable in all SGs. To measure the residual voltage, an additional
open delta PT is used. In the healthy generator, phase voltage
of the winding is almost the same, therefore, the sum of
fundamental voltage harmonics in secondary is zero, while in
the TTF, the faulty winding voltage drops, and the residual
voltage is no longer zero. In this method, the sum of other
harmonics such as third harmonics is non‐zero, and all must be
removed to prevent unwanted tripping [50]. In the above‐
mentioned detection method, an additional PT is necessary, it
may cause some installation problems, and in some cases, it is
not economical. To solve this problem (required additional
PT), a novel protection scheme shown in Figure 4 has been
proposed which calculates zero‐sequence voltage (ZSV)
instead of measuring it [51]. In this method, the ZSV is
calculated as follows.
V AN þ V BN þ V CN ¼ 3V 0N ð5Þ
where VON is the ZSV and VAN, VBN and VCN are as
follows:
8
< V AN ¼ V AG V NG
V ¼ V BG V NG ð6Þ
: BN
V CN ¼ V CG V NG
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AND FAIZ
In faulty case ZSV ¼ 0, but due to the intrinsic asymmetry
of the electrical machine, the ZSV is generally non‐zero even in
the healthy condition. Hence, a threshold should be consid-
ered. When the ZSV is higher than the threshold (k), a TTF
has been occurred in the winding.
Time‐harmonic of the stator current and rotor current can
be used for stator winding fault detection. The interaction
between the electrical quantities at the supply frequency and
different space harmonics produce additional time‐harmonic
components in the stator and rotor currents [39]. The TTF of
the stator winding produces some even harmonics in the rotor
field current, which is noticeable to define a fault detection
method. In this case, some even harmonics increase in the
faulty case [52] and this validates the simulation results [53,54].
For instance, when the TTF occurs in the stator winding, the
eighth‐order harmonic is generated in the rotor of a 4‐pole
SG; however, it is noted that even harmonics are also pro-
duced in the unbalanced supply conditions in synchronous
motors [55]. The third harmonic of the rotor current can be
used for fault diagnosis, but it has no acceptable sensitivity.
Therefore, by a search coil in the rotor and measuring its
90 Hz component (for fundamental frequency of 60 Hz) can
significantly improve the protection without any correction
factor [56].
In transient and steady state modes, for stator TTF in a
brushless SG, the third harmonic of the positive sequence
stator voltage is selected as an indicator [57]. Most stator TTF
detection methods in induction motors can be extendedto the
SGs, because of the similarity of the stator in both machines.
Therefore, the extended Park's vector approach (EPVA) has
been presented for the SGs and induction motors in Ref. [58],
which uses the spectral analysis of the decomposed current by
Park's transform.
The second harmonic in the EPVA spectrum is sensitive to
the stator TTF and it is a good indication for fault diagnosis.
However, the mentioned method of performance is ambitious
in the unbalanced supply. Negative sequence impedance is also
another indicator to detect the TTF in the stator winding of
electrical machines. The proposed method has an appropriate
performance against the TTF, but it is not so in minor faults
and unbalanced supply [59,60]. A modified negative sequence
impedance method uses a voltage mismatch detector to solve
the mentioned problems [61]. Negative sequence voltage
(NSV) can be also used for this purpose as introduced in the
large SGs [62].
Recently, slope measurement for condition monitoring
has become popular. The slope of a Lissajous curve has
been used in Ref. [63] for short‐circuit fault diagnosis in
turbo‐generators. In Figure 5, a turbo‐generator with a
short‐circuit fault in phase has been connected to the power
grid A. According to the figure, the fault current is written
as follows:
VA grid − V A Gen ðnÞ
IF A ¼
ð7Þ
Zgrid þ ZGen ðnÞ − jX AB2 ðnÞ − jX AC2 ðnÞ − j|γ|X A−AF
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MOSTAFAEI AND FAIZ
- 397

F I G U R E 4 Proposed protection scheme for

TTF detection using zero‐sequence voltage [51]

�
xðtÞ ¼ Ax sinðωx tÞ �
ð8Þ
yðtÞ ¼ Ay sin ωy t þ φ

Therefore, by solving (8):

�� � � � �
ωy xðtÞ
y t ¼ Ay sin � sin 1 þφ ð9Þ
ωx Ax

where x(t) is the current sample in a specific time and y(t) is

F I G U R E 5 Schematic model of a generator with an internal fault in the current sample in the previous cycle. Since the frequency
phase A change is negligible over a short time, by assuming ωx¼ωy, (9)
is simplified as follows:
where γ is the phase difference between VA_grid, VA_Gen
and β is the phase difference between the healthy and faulty �� � � � �
xðtÞ
current. y t ¼ Ay sin sin 1 þφ ð10Þ
The fault currents in three phases can be classified into two Ax
categories according to β. When β < 90°, the fault current is
called class I and else is called class II. In this case, the current The slope of the Lissajous curve is an appropriate factor to
in the faulty phase (IFA) has a reverse direction, and when determine the current class, where the positive slope means the
β > 90°, it is the class II. class I and negative slope means the class II. The sign of Δx/
To determine the current class, the Lissajous curve is used Δy determines the sign of the large axis slope of the ellipse in
for the phase difference between the two time‐dependent this curve.
signals. In this curve, two time‐dependent signals are plotted To distinguish the internal fault from other disturbances and
versus each other. For two sinusoidal signals with amplitude A, faults, the difference between the SG phase currents is estimated.
their equations can be written as follows: In the internal fault, the difference between the phase currents of
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398
- MOSTAFAEI
the two healthy phases is negligible, but the difference between
the currents of the faulty phase and two healthy phases is large. If
the difference of instantaneous current of phase A and phase B
in the faulty case is ΔFAB and in healthy case, just in the previous
cycle is ΔHAB, the ratio ΔFAB/ΔHAB can help to distinguish
the internal fault from other disturbances and faults. Figure 6
shows the flow‐chart of fault diagnosis methods which can
detect the fault in different phases.
Table 2 shows a brief review of the various SG winding
fault detection methods.
Frequency response analysis (FRA) is another well‐known
technique in detecting the various defects such as winding short
circuit, core deformation, and winding movement in power
transformers and it is now a standard method. It uses the equiv-
alent impedance for fault diagnosis in the frequency domain [64].
Figure 7 presents the equivalent scheme for the rotor winding.
A novel approach uses the FRA in a rotating machine,
especially SGs with static excitation [65]. It is able to detect
both ground fault and TTF. Moreover, FRA can be applied
while the rotor is turning at full speed with no excitation. [65].
The disadvantages of the FRA are the difficulties in inter-
preting the results and unavailability of the healthy results for
on‐service machines.
Despite the transformer, the rotor winding of the SG
(similar to the secondary winding of transformer) is rotational,
and its position changes the FRA results. However, Figure 8
shows that the differences between the various rotor positions
are negligible.
F I G U R E 6 Fault diagnosis flow‐chart
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4 | ROTOR FAULTS
Owing to the rotor rotation, both mechanical and electrical
faults can take place in the rotors. Detection of the electrical
failure in the rotor, that is the SG short‐circuit.
winding is quite different from the stator, because the DC
current flows in the rotor winding and the faults cannot be
detected by sinusoidal waveform‐based approaches. To
discriminate rotor electrical and mechanical faults, symmetrical
component monitoring can be considered as an appropriate
method [66]. In the proposed method, the current spectrum
and voltage have been analysed to discriminate against the
rotor faults. The results show that the rotor TTF increases the
positive, negative, and zero sequences of the rotational fre-
quency of the first right sideband, while the mechanical fault
increases only the positive sequence of the rotational frequency
[66]. Furthermore, vibration can be used to diagnose both
winding and eccentricity faults.
4.1 | Rotor winding faults
The TTF in the rotor winding is caused by the insulation
failure due to ageing, thermal, and mechanical stresses [67].
As a result of short‐circuit turns, the total ampere‐turn is
reduced in the affected pole, and consequently, the air‐gap
magnetic flux density distribution becomes asymmetrical [68].
Magnetic flux and vibration are two major quantities,
measured by sensors, which can be used for the rotor
winding fault diagnosis. For this purpose, magnetic flux
probes were used in the 1970s for the first time and devel-
oped up to now [69]. Some methods focus on the stray flux
or leakage flux measured by stator wedge‐mounted sensors;
however, its magnitude is small and not recommended for
condition monitoring [70,71]. A new flux probe introduced in
Ref. [72] has been mounted on the stator core tooth to
measure the main magnetic flux passing through the core
tooth. These probes can be removed easier than the con-
ventional flux probes [71].
A non‐invasive method has been proposed in Refs. [73,74],
which uses the external search coil to sense the stray magnetic
flux in the SGs. Analysing both the stray flux and frame vi-
brations can detect the rotor TTF in SGs.
The search coil near the frame is firstly applied to in-
duction motors for fault detection [75]. Similar search coil
can be also used in the SGs. The frequencies in the
magnetic flux spectrum and signal spectrum of vibration
define the healthy and faulty SGs. In the faulty condition,
the magnitude of some frequencies increases compared with
the healthy case. It is noted that although there are
amplitude changes every 25 Hz in the vibration spectrum,
the most significant modification appears at low frequencies,
especially at 225 Hz, but the healthy frequencies remain
unchanged [73].
As shown in Figure 9, to diagnose the rotor‐winding fault in
turbo‐ and hydro‐SGs, the flux probe is installed in the stator slot.
The flux probe is sensitive to the of the air‐gap radial flux change.
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MOSTAFAEI AND FAIZ
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TA B L E 2 Various SG stator and stator fault detection methods

Method Advantages Disadvantages

Air‐gap flux High sensitivity and accuracy Invasive
High reliability Installed inside the stator slots
Wide range measurement May change the machine design
Useful for various kinds of faults

Stray flux Non‐invasive Low sensitivity and accuracy.

Installed in or in vicinity of the machine housing
High range measurement
Useful for various kinds of faults.

Current/Voltage Accessibility and simple measuring Low sensitivity and accuracy

Using current/voltage transformers which is installed on SG Instruments errors
Non‐invasive
Reliable
Using various transform function i.e. Park's vector
transform or symmetrical component transform

FRA Detect both electrical and mechanical faults a Costly test.

Needs the healthy condition data.
Needs expert's opinion.

F I G U R E 7 Quadrupole representation of field winding of a F I G U R E 9 Position of flux probe around stator tooth near air‐gap [76]
synchronous machine during the FRA test

associated with the two opposite slots containing the faulted coil,
thus, the presence of shorted turns could be detected [76].
Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) is alternative way for
the rotor winding fault detection, which provides a set of
decomposed signals in independent frequency bands, including
the independent dynamic information due to the orthogonality
of wavelet function [77]. Herein, the.
rotor current in cylindrical SG is used as DWT input, and
the results show that the fifth detail level gives useful infor-
mation about the rotor winding fault.

4.2 | Rotor eccentricity fault

Rotor eccentricity is a mechanical fault in rotational ma-

F I G U R E 8 Standstill FRA of stator winding at different rotor positions
(0–360 electrical degrees) [65]
As each rotor slot passes the flux probe, a difference in the
induced voltage waveform in a search coil caused by magnetic
poles is detectable. An inter‐turn fault in a coil reduces the peaks
chines related to the rotor. Generally, the air gap is
distributed homogeneously, but the rotor eccentricity is
defined as asymmetric air‐gap that exists between the stator
and rotor [78].
Figure 10 shows the static eccentricities (SE) and dynamic
eccentricity (DE) faults. In the case of the SE fault, the posi-
tion of the minimal radial air‐gap length is fixed in space. The
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400
- MOSTAFAEI
DE occurs when the centre of the rotor is not at the centre of
the rotation, and the position of minimum air‐gap rotates with
the rotor [79]. These faults are critical for electrical machines
and must be detected in the early stage. Different methods
have been presented for the eccentricity fault detection in in-
duction motors but less in SGs. Therefore, the detection
methods for induction motors are presented firstly, and then
some proposed approaches in SGs are discussed.
The eccentricity fault can be detected in large induction
motors using line current and motor frame vibration [80].
Besides, based on a new theoretical analysis [81] has presented
to diagnose SE and DE faults simultaneously. Search coil
installation in stator slots is another approach for detecting the
SE fault [82], which is not practical because the sensors must
be fixed in the machine during the manufacturing process [21].
The current harmonic analysis has been presented in Refs.
[22,23] for eccentricity fault diagnosis. The volunteer harmonic
components are the 17th and 19th. However, the mentioned
harmonics depend on the structure and geometry of the SGs.
Moreover, these harmonics are similar to power network
harmonics [83]. Rotor current double‐frequency ripple can be
used for the SE fault detection [84], where the impact of the
regulator has been ignored.
The mixed eccentricity (ME) fault may occur in electrical
machines, where both symmetrical and rotor rotation axes are
displaced with respect to the stator rotation axis. In fact, all
stator, rotor, and rotational symmetrical axes are displaced with
respect to each other [26]. The SE, DE, and ME faults in SGs
are discussed in Ref. [26]. The ME fault diagnosis method has
been also introduced for permanent magnet synchronous
motors in Refs. [85,86].
5 | BROKEN DAMPER BARS FAULTS
Damper bars are used in large SGs. These bars are located
axially into the pole face slots, and two ends are connected. At
starting, the rotor speed and synchronous speed differ, and
currents are induced in the damper bars and developed the
torque, which called the asynchronous operation of the SG
[78,87]. Damper bars in SG are used to counteract an asyn-
chronous air‐gap flux causing by electrical and mechanical
transients [88,89]. Moreover, they are used in direct‐online
applications to bring the SG to synchronous speed [90]. In fact,
F I G U R E 1 0 Various kinds of eccentricity in electrical machines
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the damper bars damp the transient power and torque oscil-
lations. The rotor speed oscillates around the synchronous
speed in transition, and this oscillation should be damped by
the damper bars [91].
The damper bars in a steady‐state mode are quite different
from the fault condition. Hence, the damper bar fault detection
methods in SGs is proposed here. The correlation of the
broken bars fault in induction motors and the damper bars in
SGs has been considered in Ref. [92].
Although the current and thermal stress are considered for
designing the damper bars, failure is possible due to the defi-
cient construction of damper cage [93] or frequent and hard
duty cycle [94,95]. This kind of fault is not common in SGs,
but it occurs in some SGs and leads to severe damages [94].
Due to the similarity of the damper bars and induction
motors cage bars and the probability of the broken damper
bars fault, proposing the novel detection methods were not
enthusiastic for researchers, and a few methods has been
presented for fault detection. An online diagnosis method for
damper bars breakage presented in Ref. [94] uses a flux probe
to measure the air‐gap flux from starting to the rated speed.
Another method for diagnosing the broken damper bars in
Ref. [96] is the Hilbert–Huang Transform (HHT) based on
Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) method reported in
Refs. [97,98].
Temperature is a key parameter for broken damper bars
fault detection, and temperature sensors are mounted on the
rotor to measure the temperature rise during the fault. Resis-
tance temperature detector (RTD) is one of the sensors used to
sense the temperature [99]. Besides, the temperature sensors
have been reported in Ref. [100]. Therefore, temperature
monitoring can be an easy and economical method for broken
damper bar fault detection, but some believe that the mounted
RTD is an invasive method.
6 | OTHER WELL‐KNOWN FAULT
DETECTION METHODS
Some techniques such as artificial intelligence (AI) approach
help to improve diagnosis methods and their sensitivities. The
AI application in electrical machines and drives are proposed in
Refs. [101,102] focusing on the stator winding fault diagnosis
of induction motors [102].
In the AI‐based systems, several quantities such as stator
currents and voltages, magnetic fluxes, and frame vibration are
utilised as input signals [39]. Generally, an expert system, an
artificial neural network (ANN), a fuzzy neural network [103],
and their combinations are the well‐known methods in AI.
ANN has been widely studied during the last 2 decades and
successfully applied to dynamic system modelling [104,105] as
well as fault diagnosis [106–110].
Vibration monitoring has a long history in condition
monitoring and used in various electrical equipment. Vibration
is used in Ref. [111] for stator winding fault in.
induction motors. For SGs, the vibration is employed for
various mechanical faults detection [112], especially bearing
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MOSTAFAEI AND FAIZ
- 401

fault [113]. Generally, vibration monitoring is an expensive
method because it requires some costly vibration sensors [113].
Recently, many have focused on thermal condition moni-
toring using infrared thermography. This apparatus identifies
temperatures and hotspots of different locations. Thermog-
raphy is used in induction motors [114] and SGs [115] for
condition monitoring. The high cost of an infrared device is
the main disadvantage of the thermal monitoring methods.
The above‐mentioned methods can be combined to pre-
sent a comprehensive approach which has the advantages of
the both for fault diagnosis. One of these methods uses air‐gap
flux, stray flux, and vibration to detect the rotor‐winding fault
in hydro‐generator precisely [116].
There are two key advantages of the presented algorithm
for realising the monitoring system. The first advantage is the
integration of the two methods for the measurement of
magnetic flux. The applied measuring procedure includes a
comparative analysis of the results of magnetic flux measure-
ments with the results obtained by the system for measuring
mechanical vibrations to approach the fault detection
comprehensively. The second advantage is the mobility of the
monitoring system and its application without interrupting the
generators operation (the case when the leakage stator flux is
measured or when the system is connected with the previously
built‐in sensors in the air gap of the generator) [115].
Capacitive sensors are installed on the surface of the stator
[117], while the inductive sensors are fixed in the ventilation
ducts of the stator [48]. Figure 11 shows the proposed algo-
rithm, which can detect the rotor‐winding fault of hydro‐
generator. As shown, mounted sensors must measure the air‐
gap and stray flux firstly, and then the signal processing method
is applied to determine the THD of stray flux. Any change in
magnetic flux may be the sign of a fault in the SG. Therefore,
vibration measurement can complete the fault detection pro-
cess. The unbalanced magnetic flux and increased vibration
show the rotor‐winding fault, and the SG must be shut down
immediately.
Table 3 presents appropriate comparisons between the
measurement methods.

7 | CONCLUSION

The current‐ and voltage‐based methods are generally more

useful than the flux based ones, because these parameters can be
measured as easy as possible by instrumental transformers. For
this purpose, analysing harmonics in various conditions and
using signal‐processing techniques such as Wavelet and Fourier
transform. Nowadays, vibration analysis is used for various fault
detection in electrical machine and this processed vibration data
can present much information about the SG condition especially
under mechanical faults. Apart from the mentioned parameters,
frequency spectrum of SG offers invaluable data about condi-
tion monitoring. In transformers, frequency based methods are
popular and it can be used in SGs.
All proposed methods can be combined by AI techniques
(as a hybrid method) to increase their sensitivities. Moreover,
AI can help the researchers to reduce the errors and prevent
some catastrophic problems that can be occurred because of
FIGURE 11 Fault detection algorithm flow chart CT, VT or other sensors mal‐operation.

TA B L E 3 Comparative analysis of measurement methods [116]

Measurement methods Mounting of sensors Shorted turns detection Air‐gap asymmetry detection
Main magnetic flux in air‐gap Time‐consuming Yes (from one to more shorted turns) Yes

Leakage magnetic flux of the stator Not time‐consuming Yes (from one to more shorted turns) ‐

Vibrations of upper and lower guide bearing Time‐consuming Yes (if the number of shorted turns is Yes
significant/low number of rotor poles)
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402
- MOSTAFAEI
OR CID
Mohsen Mostafaei https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9976-4956
Jawad Faiz https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0844-8523
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How to cite this article: Mostafaei M, Faiz J. An
overview of various faults detection methods in
synchronous generators. IET Electr. Power Appl.
2021;15:391–404. https://doi.org/10.1049/elp2.12031