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Asset-Management of Transformers Based on Condition Monitoring and

Standard Diagnosis [Feature Article]

Article  in  IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine · August 2008

DOI: 10.1109/MEI.2008.4581371 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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 F E A T U R E A R T I C L E

Asset-Management of Transformers
Based on Condition Monitoring and
Standard Diagnosis
Key Words: asset management, condition monitoring, diagnosis, international test standard,
transformerdynamics, space environment, printed circuit boards, homocharge, heterocharge

Introduction Xiang Zhang and Ernst Gockenbach

U nder present deregulation policies of electric power sys-
tems, every utility is trying to cut its costs, while being
acutely aware that the prevention of accidental loss is more im-
Institute of Electric Power Systems, Department of
High Voltage Engineering, Schering Institut,
portant than ever; for example, the capital loss of an accidental Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany
outage is often counted in millions of dollars for transformers. To
meet the growing demand of the electric power grid and to main-
tain system reliability, significant changes may be required in the
way a utility operates and cares for its transformers. It is usually
not economically feasible to subject every aging transformer to The important aim of the
rigorous inspection and extensive testing. A promising industry standardization is to develop the
strategy for life-cycle management is to set monitoring priorities
and to provide strategic maintenances for all transformers.
multiple diagnostic models that
This is the reason why monitoring, analyzing, or diagnostic combine results from the different
systems have become an essential part of the supervision of tests and give an overall assessment
transformers. With the help of measuring techniques, technical
diagnostics permit a standard evaluation, which goes beyond of reliability and maintenance for
summarizing the obvious signs of defects. Different monitoring transformers.
methods that cover a multiplicity of physical effects are used;
from the measurement of the parameters; to the analysis of data
and diagnosis of failure; and lastly to electrical, thermal, mechani-
cal, and optical techniques. Therefore, the aims of the diagnostic
methods are the evaluation of the operating conditions, finding
the causes of aging, recommending measures to improve quality, formers. The risk-based FMEA process (failure mode and effect
and the assessment of lifetime. analysis) uses expert systems to identify and prioritize the highest
With these technical diagnostic methods it is possible to record risk for transformers.
typical values from which conclusions can be drawn about the There are a number of failure mechanisms which affect the
future operational behavior of transformers. The operating con- life expectancy of transformers, and transformer failure can occur
ditions of transformers are the important inputs to the technical as a result of different causes and conditions (Figure 1). Failure
and economic models used to determine the most cost-effective factors in transformers include electrical breakdown, lightning,
alternative for operation, refurbishment, or replacement. dielectric fault, loose connection, incorrect maintenance, mois-
ture, excessive overloading, and other causes [1]. Contamination,
Failure Survey on Transformers thermal aging, repetitive excessive voltage stress, and mechanical
There are many different risk assessment methods and strate- deformation hasten electrical breakdown. Dielectric failure is a
gies available to the utility industry for a large family of trans- common failure occurrence and can have a profound effect on

26 0883-7554/07/$25/©2008IEEE IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

Figure. 1. Transformer failure causes [1]. Figure 3. Transformer failure detection methods (TTR:
transformer turns ratio; DGA: dissolved gas analysis; TCG:
total combustible gas; PD: partial discharge) [3].
useful life. Contamination and thermal aging can be monitored
through testing. Voltage stress can be controlled by design of the
transformer protection and operating philosophy.
Figure 2 illustrates the failure statistics of the defective compo- Condition Monitoring and Standard
nents and identifies those areas where failure-reducing efforts can Diagnosis
be best directed. When analyzing the failure causes, information One of the most important tasks for utilities is the maintenance
on faults is given in load tap changer (LTC), bushing, winding, of transformers to provide high customer reliability. There are
tank, core, and relay [2]. some basic procedures by which a utility can better judge the con-
Figure 3 shows the most common detection methods of trans- dition of its transformers: monitoring, diagnosis, and maintenance.
former failures and the percentage of all the detection methods These basic evaluation steps in condition assessment provide the
representing studies conducted for many years: relay test, inspec- data for analysis and prioritization of maintenance measures. For
tion, turns ratio test (TTR), dissolved gas analysis (DGA), resis- effective maintenance, testing and diagnostics must be applied in
tance test, total combustible gas test (TCG), current test, power a careful coordinated way that uses the results from international
factor test, temperature test, capacitance test [3]. In the following, testing standards to identify overall transformer condition and
we will discuss the diagnostic methods. performance. The results of these investigations are important
Once the FMEA process has established a priority list, diag-
nostic testing and condition assessment can establish a detailed
asset management strategy. The importance of diagnostic methods
can recognize which diagnostic parameter affects the transformer
condition to a greater or lesser degree than other parameters [4].
Transformer diagnostics are somewhat subjective, relying on
(1) analysis of oil and paper; (2) power factor, capacitance, and
excitation current tests; (3) turns ratio, leakage reactance, wind-
ing resistance, frequency response, core insulation resistance,
ultrasonic/sonic, and vibration analysis. Figure 4 ranks the
importance of different diagnostic methods for the estimation of
transformer conditions.

Figure 2. Defective components of a transformer (LTC: load Figure 4. The importance of different diagnostic methods to
tap changer) [2]. estimate transformer conditions with color distinction.

July/August 2008 — Vol. 24, No.4 27

 Table 1. DGA Analysis

Limit Diagnostics Interpretation Measures

1. Four IEEE® Conditions
2. Duval Triangle Analysis
3. Rogers Ratio
Analysis
4. Doernenberg Ratio Analysis
The measured parameters <
recommended safety limits:
The most severe intensity of energy
dissipation occurs with arcing, less with
heating, and least with corona.
1. Overheating destroys oil insulation
and reduces life expectancy of
transformers.
2. The quality of oil is reflective of the
health of transformers.
1. The different measures are made
according to conditions of transformers.
2. Internal inspection should be
considered.

Table 2. Typical Faults and Possible Findings in Transformers

Fault types Possible findings

Partial discharge Weakened insulation from aging and electrical stress.

1. Pinhole punctures in paper insulation with carbon and carbon tracking.

2. Possible carbon particles in oil.
Discharge of low energy
3. Possible carbon particles in oil.
4. Possible loose shield, poor grounding of metal objects.

1. Metal fusion, poor contacts in LTC or lead connections.

Discharge of high energy 2. Weakened insulation from aging and electrical stress. Carbonized oil.
3. Paper destruction if it is in the arc path or overheated.

1. Discoloration of paper insulation.

2. Overloading and/or cooling problem.
Thermal fault < 300°C
3. Bad connection in leads or LTC.
4. Stray current path and/or stray magnetic flux.

1. Paper insulation destroyed.

Thermal fault 300°C–700°C
2. Oil heavily carbonized.

1. Same as above with metal discoloration.

Thermal fault > 700°C
2. Arcing may have caused a thermal fault.

to determine the most cost-effective alternative for operation, electrical or thermal stresses break down to liberate small quanti-
refurbishment, or replacement. ties of gases. The composition of these gases is dependent upon
To reliably assess the overall condition of a transformer, several the type of fault (Tables 1 and 2). The most important diagnostic
monitoring techniques are used or are under investigation. In ad- parameters are the individual and total dissolved combustible gas
dition to the traditional routine tests, there are some specialized
tests including partial discharge measurement, frequency response
analysis, infrared examination, vibration analysis, and degree of
polymerization. These monitoring tests may detect problems such
as local partial discharge, winding looseness and displacement,
mechanical faults, hot spot at connectors, moisture in paper and
aging of paper, as well as insulation degradation. The careful
recording and plotting of the test results makes it possible to get
the full information out of a test and to compare the values with
those of previously accomplished tests and international testing
standards.
Interpretive discussions are also included to provide guidance
on acceptance criteria. These activities may help identify existing
weaknesses or faults and also give some indication of expected
service reliability and remaining life.

A. Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

DGA has proven to be a valuable and reliable diagnostic
technique for the detection of incipient fault conditions within
liquid-immersed transformers. Insulating oils under abnormal Figure 5. Duval Triangle Analysis for DGA [6].

28 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

Figure 6. Roger Ratio Criteria for DGA [7].
concentrations (TDCG) and their generation rates [5]. By means
of dissolved gas analysis (DGA), it is possible to distinguish fault
types such as internal arcing, bad electrical contacts, hot spots,
partial discharge, or overheating in oil, cellulose paper, tank, or
conductors, etc.
Table 3. Moisture Test of Oil
Limit Diagnostics
M/DW 1. Moisture in presence of oxygen is
(moisture/dry weight) > 2.5% extremely hazardous to insulation of
paper and transformer.
2. Moisture and oxygen form acids, metal
soaps and sludge, causing transformer
cooling to be less efficient,
temperature to rise slowly over time and
paper insulation to decay.
3. Moisture reduces the dielectric
strength of oil.
4. Above 4% M/DW, it is in danger of
flashover if temperature rises to 90°C.
Table 4. IFT Test of Oil
Limit Diagnostics
Number of interfacial tension < 22 1. Oil is very contaminated and sludge
dynes/cm is formed.
2. Sludge will settle on windings,
insulation, cooling surfaces, and cause
loading and cooling problem. This will
greatly shorten transformer life.
July/August 2008 — Vol. 24, No.4 29
The first step is to establish whether or not a fault exists by
using the IEEE method [5]. Only when these levels exceed some
threshold value is a fault suspected. The second step is to deter-
mine the type of fault. Three methods are most commonly used:
Duval Triangle (Figure 5), Roger Ratio Criteria (Figure 6) and
Interpretation Measures
1. Paper insulation has a much greater 1. Transformer should have a dry out
affinity for water than oil does. with vacuum or do round-the-clock re-
2. Temperature is also a big factor in how circulation with a Bowser.
water distributes itself between the oil 2. DGA and Doble tests should be
and paper. examined.
3. Each time the moisture is doubled in a
transformer, the life of
insulation is cut by one-half.
4. This is a vicious cycle of increasing
speed with deterioration forming more
acid and causing more decay.
Interpretation Measures
1. As oil ages, it is contaminated by Oil should be reclaimed to prevent sludge
oxidation products of oil and paper when it reaches 25 dynes/cm.
insulation. These oxidation products will
weaken the surface tension between oil
and water and lower IFT number.
2. IFT and acid number together are an
excellent indication of when oil needs to
be reclaimed.

Limit
O2 concentration > 2000 ppm
Ditertiary Butyl Paracresol by total
weight of oil > 0.3%
Limit
Acid number > 0.4 mg KOH/gm
Limit
Power factor > 1.0% (25 °C)
Limit
1. Minimum oil breakdown voltage <
20kV (for rated voltage < 288kV)
2. Minimum oil breakdown voltage
<25kV (for rated voltage ≥ 287.5kV)
30 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
Table 5. Oxygen Test of Oil
Diagnostics
1. High oxygen means a leakage in
conservator.
2. Oxygen in oil greatly accelerates
paper deterioration.
1. Inhibitor is used up.
2. Transformer ages.
Table 6. Acid Test of Oil
Diagnostics
1. Oxidation of insulation and oil form
acids and sludge.
2. Sludge will settle on windings,
insulation, cooling surfaces and cause
loading and cooling problems as
temperature rises slowly. This will greatly
shorten transformer life.
Table 7. Power Factor Test of Oil
Diagnostics
1. The insulation integrity of oil may be
broken down.
2. The state of humidity of oil is
determined.
3. Transformer failure is imminent when
the power factor is above 2%.
Table 8. Dielectric Strength Test of Oil
Diagnostics
It indicates the amount of contaminants
(water and oxidation) in oil.
Interpretation
1. Under the same temperature
conditions, cellulose insulation in high-
oxygen oil will last 10 times shorter than
insulation in low-oxygen oil.
2. This becomes even more critical with
moisture above safe level.
1. Oxygen inhibitor is a key to extend the
life of transformers.
2. This works similarly to a sacrificial
anode in grounding circuits. Oxygen
attacks inhibitor instead of cellulose
insulation.
Interpretation
1. Acid attacks metals in tank and forms
soaps. Acid also attacks cellulose and
accelerates insulation degradation.
2. IFT and acid number together are an
excellent indication of when oil needs to
be reclaimed.
Interpretation
1. The dielectric loss indicates
deterioration or contamination of oil from
by-products such as water, carbon, or
other conducting particles, including
metal soaps and oxidation products.
2. A trend can be established as
insulation system ages.
3. Test values are compared to previous
or factory tests.
Interpretation
This test is not extremely valuable since
moisture will destroy cellulose insulation
long before the dielectric strength of oil
has indicated.
Measures
1. Oil should be de-gassed and new
oxygen inhibitor installed when oxygen
reaches 10000 ppm.
2. DGA test must be done.
1. Inhibitor needs to be replaced.
2. Oil needs to be treated.
3. DGA test must be done.
Measures
Oil should be reclaimed to prevent
sludge when it reaches 0.2 mg KOH/gm.
Measures
1. Replacement or reclaiming of oil is
required immediately.
2. Internal inspection should be
considered before re-energized.
3. Above 2%, oil should be removed
from service and replaced because oil
cannot be longer reclaimed.
Measures
1. Oil should be reclaimed.
2. DGA test needs to be done.
 Figure 8: The relationships between IFT, acid number, and
Figure 7: The relationships between water concentration, service year [12].
temperature, and moisture [11].

Doernenberg Ratio. Interpretation of fault conditions associated
with gas concentration and combinations of these gases are also
provided in [5].
B. Physical and Chemical Tests of Oil Quality
An important part of the life extension of a transformer is the
restoration of the insulating fluid quality in the transformer. Physi-
cal and chemical tests such as moisture test, interfacial tension test,
oxygen test, acidity test, power factor test, and dielectric strength
test [8], [9], [10] usually indicate oil conditions and operational
characteristics (Tables 3–8).
Moisture in a transformer decreases the dielectric strength of its
insulation system (Figure 7). The combination of moisture, heat,
and oxygen is the key factor that affects the rate of cellulose deg-
radation. The interfacial tension (IFT) between insulating fluids
and water is a measure of the molecular attractive force between
unlike molecules at the interface. This test provides a means of
detecting contaminants and products of deterioration (Figure 8).
The oil conditions can be remedied through various reclamation
processes. Therefore, they are not indicative of overall transformer
condition, which would lead to replacement.
Additional tests such as color, visual appearance, flash point,
pour point, specific gravity, and viscosity [8], [9], [10] to detect
the presence of deleterious products of oxidation or contamination
in service-aged oils also seem appropriate. These tests and their
significance are recommended for classification purposes and to
determine the suitability for use of reclaimed oils.
C. Insulation Tests of Cellulose Paper
Furan analysis, degree of polymerization and CO2/CO ratio
tests [5] may indicate a problem with the insulating paper (Tables
9–11), if the transformer is overheated, overloaded, aged, or after
processing the oil (Table 9).
The presence of these compounds is related to the strength
of the paper as measured by its degree of polymerization (DP).
DP is the average number of glucose molecules making the cel-
lulose chains. The DP value decreases with time as the cellulose
molecules break and fragment. The paper is assumed to age at a
more rapid rate where the temperature of the paper and exposure
to oxygen are the highest. Figure 9 depicts the relation between
relative depolymerization velocity and the water content and
temperature. When the DP test reveals a value of 200 or less, the
paper is considered to have lost almost all mechanical strength,
and the transformer has reached its end of life. The distribution of
measured DP values in Figure 10 demonstrates that the technical
lifetime of generator transformers is limited to 25 years whereas
transmission transformers can reach a technical lifetime up to 50
years [13].
As paper degrades, a number of specific furanic compounds
are produced and dissolved in the oil. Furanic compounds are a

Table 9. Furans Test of Cellulose Paper

Limit Diagnostics Interpretation Measures

Furans > 250 ppb 1. Overheating, lightning, oxidation,
acids and high moisture accelerate the
destruction of cellulose insulation and
form furanic compounds.
2. Paper insulation is being deteriorated
and transformer life reduced at a high
rate.
1. Furan is especially helpful in
estimating remaining life in paper
insulation and transformer life.
2. Test values are compared to previous
or factory tests.
1. Oil should be reclaimed.
2. Use in conjunction with IFT and acid
number.
3. DGA is always required.

July/August 2008 — Vol. 24, No.4 31

 Table 10. DP Test of Cellulose Paper

Limit Diagnostics Interpretation Measures

Degree of polymerization < 200 DP
All mechanical strength of cellulose
insulation has been lost and paper
insulation has reached the end of life.
1. The cellulose molecule is made up of 1. Transformer must be replaced.
a long chain of glucose rings which form 2. Internal inspection is required.
the mechanical strength of molecule
and paper. DP is the average number of
these rings in molecule. As paper ages
or deteriorates from heat, acids, oxygen,
and water; bonds between the rings
begin to break, DP decreases.
2. DP is the most dependable means
of determining paper deterioration and
remaining life.

Table 11. CO2/CO Ratio Test of Cellulose Paper

Limit Diagnostics Interpretation Measures

CO2/CO < 3 1. Imminent danger of failure.
2. Severe and rapid deterioration of
cellulose is certainly occurring.
3. The fault is probably caused by a
bad connection on a bushing base or on
LTC, or a problem with a core ground.
4. An excellent indication of abnormally
high temperatures and rapidly
deteriorating cellulose insulation is a
CO2/CO<5.
5. The large increase in CO2 could
mean an atmospheric leak when the
ratio is above 10.
1. Extreme overheating from loss of
cooling or plugged oil passages will
produce a low CO2/CO ratio along with
increasing Furans.
2. If H2, CH4, and C2H6 are increasing
significantly as well as CO and CO2/
CO<5, there is probably a problem.
3. These problems are probably all
reparable in the field where a fault will
not degrade cellulose insulation.
1. If there is a sudden increase in H2
with CO2 and CO, this test is required.
2. De-energization and internal
inspection is recommended.
3. DGA and Furans tests are taken
immediately to confirm the problem.

family of molecules based on a furan ring structure. The most as blockages of cooling system, locating electrical connection
stable of these compounds is 2-furfuraldehyde, or 2-FAL. Ther- problems and hot spots (Figure 12).
mal degradation of insulating paper could be monitored by furan
analysis, especially when due to overheating conditions. Attempts
have been made to relate the furanic content (2-FAL) of oil to the
degree of polymerization (DP) of paper (Figure 11).

D. Infrared Thermograph Test

The monitoring of temperature is usually not a problem and
is very important to evaluate and to assess the influence of many
other parameters, e.g. the humidity content in the oil or paper.
An increase in temperature can indicate cooling problems or
higher losses in the winding, core, bushing, arrester, tank, LTC,
radiator, cooling system, and oil pump (Table 12). An increase
of about 6 K to 8 K correlates with a doubling of the aging pro-
cesses. An increase of about 75 °C will cause immediate failure
of transformers [15].
Thermography is a non-contact means of identifying thermal
anomalies related to electrical and mechanical components that
are exhibiting an excessive heat loss. The self-emitted radiation
in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is mea-
sured at the target surface and converted to electrical signals. It Figure 9: Relative depolymerization velocity at different water
is useful for detecting thermal problems in a transformer, such content and temperature [14].

32 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

Figure 10. Aging behavior of cellulose insulation of transmission and generator transformers (GSU) [13].

E. Power Factor Test
Power factor testing is important to determine the insulation
condition of transformers because it can detect the insulation
integrity in winding, bushing, arrester, tank, and oil (Table 13).
The condition of bushings can also be determined by measure-
ment of capacitance. Increased power factor may be the result of
moisture or polar and ionic compounds in the oil [17]. The aging
of bushings is caused by cracking of the resin-bonded paper and
inhomogeneous impregnation with insulating oil. The technical
life time has a great scatter and should not exceed more than 30
years (Figure 13).
F. Capacitance Test
As the transformer ages and events such as nearby lightning
strikes or through faults occur, changes in the measured capaci-
tances indicate winding deformation and structural problems such
as displaced wedging and support in winding and core (Table 14).
The insulation condition of bushings can also be determined by
measurement of capacitance [17]. About 90% of bushing failures
may be attributed to moisture ingress.
G. Excitation Current Test
The purpose of this test is to detect short-circuited turns, poor
electrical connections, core delaminations, core lamination shorts,
LTC problems, and other possible core and winding problems
(Table 15). The excitation current test [9], [18] measures the
single-phase voltage, current, and phase angle between them,
typically on the high-voltage side with the terminals of the other
winding left floating (with the exception of a grounded neutral).
On three-phase transformers, results are also compared between
phases. The measured current magnetizes the core and generates
the magnetic fields in the windings.

Figure 11. Furan versus DP for thermally upgraded and non-thermally upgraded paper [13].

July/August 2008 — Vol. 24, No.4 33

 Table 12. Infrared thermograph test

Limit Diagnostics Interpretation Measures

1. Hotspot: unusual thermal patterns
2. Above ambient temperature
>75 °C
1. Circulating stray currents.
2. Blocked cooling.
3. Bad tap changer contact.
4. High temperature may mean problems
with winding, core, or connections.
5. Oil leakage.
6. Ingress of moisture and air.
7. Loose shields.
5. Catastrophic failure is imminent which
can destroy nearby equipment and be
hazardous to workers.
1. Abnormally high temperature can
damage or destroy insulation systems
and thus reduce life expectancy.
2. An increasing temperature of only 8
to 10 °C will reduce transformer life by
one-half.
3. Test values are compared to previous
or factory tests.
1. Immediate de-energization and
replacement must be undertaken.
2. Internal inspection need to be
investigated.
3. Doble test may show the problem.

H. Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)
FRA [19] is used to help identify possible deformations and
movements in the transformer core and coil assembly as well
as other internal faults (Table 16). This test is also helpful if a
protective relay has tripped or a through fault, short-circuit, or
ground fault has occurred.
The basis of the FRA technique is that the impedance of the
transformer is related to the construction and geometry of the
windings. Deformations and movements have an effect on both
inductance and capacitance that may be reflected in the resulting
frequency response. Therefore, a change in mechanical structure
results in a change of the resonance frequencies. A change in
electrical performance due to partial discharges also results in a
larger damping of the resonance frequencies.
Different aging mechanisms can be detected and identified at
their respective frequency ranges. Shorted turns, open circuits, or
core grounds determine the dielectric loss in the low-frequency
range; core movement or damage is the dominant contributor in
the medium-frequency range; and winding displacement or dam-
age is the mechanical defect in the high-frequency range.
previous tests, and similar units to detect deformation of the core
or windings due to shipping damage, through faults, or ground
faults (Table 19).
L. Core-to-Ground Test
The core-to-ground resistance test [21] can detect the default
if this connection is loose or indicate if a spurious, unintentional
core ground is the problem (Table 20). It can also supplement
DGA test that shows the generation of hot metal gases. To check
for unintentional core grounds, the intentional ground between the
core and the grounded tank must be removed. If the intentional
core ground is intact, the resultant resistance should be very low.
Experience can help locate the source of the problem.
M. Winding Resistance
Careful measurement of winding resistance can detect broken
conductor strands, loose connections, and bad contacts in LTC
[9] (Table 21). Results from these measurements may indicate

I. Vibration Test
Vibration can result from loose core and coil segments, shield
problems, loose parts, or bad bearings on oil cooling pumps
or fans [20] of transformers (Table 17). If wedging has been
displaced due to paper deterioration or through faults, vibration
will increase markedly. It may also show if an internal inspec-
tion is necessary for transformers. Information gained from the
vibration test supplements ultrasonic or acoustic detection and
DGA tests.

J. Turns Ratio Test

The turns ratio (TTR) test detects shorts or open circuits be-
tween turns of the same coil, which indicates insulation failure
between the turns [9] (Table 18). All tap positions and all phases
should be measured and may show the necessity for a further
internal inspection or removal from service.

K. Leakage Reactance Test

This test, sometimes called percent impedance test [18], is
performed in the field and compared to nameplate information, Figure 12. IR image of defective bushing [16].

34 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine

 Table 13. Power factor test

Limit Diagnostics Interpretation Measures

Power factor > 0.5 % (20 °C)
1. The insulation integrity of windings,
bushings, and insulation systems may
be lost.
2. The state of humidity of oil is
determined.
3. Transformer failure is imminent when
the power factor is above 2%.
1. The dielectric loss indicates 1. Internal inspection should be
deterioration or contamination of considered before re-energized.
insulation systems from by-products 2. If the problem is severe, the unit may
such as water, carbon, or other have to be taken out of service.
conducting particles.
2. A trend can be established as
insulation system ages.
3. Test values are compared to previous
or factory tests.

the need for an internal inspection. This information supplements
DGA if DGA shows the generation of heat gases. When comparing
to factory tests, a temperature correction must be employed.
N. Ultrasonic and Sonic Fault Detection Tests
Partial discharge occurs in an insulating system when a local
breakdown of the insulating medium causes a redistribution of
charge within the insulating system [9], [22]. There may also be
changes to the original impulse (electrical, mechanical, acoustical,
and optical) due to the propagation characteristics in the insulat-
ing medium. The PD measurement systems principally depend
on the bandwidth (narrow-, limited-wide, or wide-band system).
With the knowledge of the impulse characteristic (spectrum and
waveform of the PD impulse) different measurement methods for
the apparent charge and the localization of failure are possible.
One technique consists of electrical measurements in millivolts,
picocoulombs, or in microvolts of radio frequency. The other
method consists of acoustical measurements with an ultrasonic
transducer.
The diagnostic procedure is based on the evaluation of the
signal deformation of PD pulses within the transformer by
mathematical algorithms. Figure 14 describes schematically the
localization of failure in a transformer winding which is based on
the comparison of the winding model with the transfer function
measured on the real transformer winding.
This test can detect partial discharge (corona) and full discharge
(arcing) inside the transformer (Table 22). These devices also can
detect loose parts inside the transformer that cause corona, spark-
ing, and arcing. Sonic testing can detect increased core or coil
noise (looseness) and vibration, failing bearings in oil pumps and
fans, and nitrogen leaks in nitrogen-blanketed transformers. Infor-
mation gained from these measurements supplements DGA test-
ing, and provides additional support information for de-energized
tests such as core ground and winding resistance tests.
O. Visible Inspection and Internal Inspection
If an internal inspection is absolutely necessary, it must be
completed by an experienced person who knows exactly what to
look for and where to look. There are very few reasons for a visible
inspection or an internal inspection as shown below [9]:
• corona in bushings, arresters, and all high voltage connec-
tions
• incorrect mechanical connections in conservator, bladder,
breather, etc.
• increasing C2H2, C2H4, and C2H6 in DGA tests
• an additional core ground
• loose windings
• low CO2/CO ratio
• high furans

Figure 13: Aging behavior of resin-bonded paper bushings [17].

July/August 2008 — Vol. 24, No.4 35


Limit
Changes in capacitances
Limit
1. Difference between two phase-
excitation currents >5% for a rated
excitation current < 50mA
2. Difference between two phase-
excitation currents >10% for a rated
excitation current ≥ 50mA
Limit
Shape change
>3dB
Limit
The measured frequency is twice the
line frequency.
36 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine
Table 14. Capacitance Test
Diagnostics
1. Bushing loss and moisture ingress.
2. Winding deformation, displaced
wedging and winding support as some
events occur, such as near-by lightning
strikes or through faults.
Table 15. Excitation current test
Diagnostics
1. There are short-circuited turns,
poor electrical connections, core de-
laminations, core lamination shorts, and
LTC problems.
2. There is an internal problem if the
measured value > these limits.
Table 16. Frequency response analysis
Diagnostics
1. There is winding displacement or
damage if frequency >10000Hz.
2. There is core movement or damage if
frequency <5000Hz.
3. There are shorted turns, open circuits,
or core grounds after shipping or a
through fault if frequency < 2000 Hz.
Table 17. Vibration test
Diagnostics
1. There is a good condition if the
measured value is twice the line
frequency.
2. Otherwise, loose parts, loose core,
loose winding, bad bearings on oil
pumps can be detected.
3. If wedging has been displaced due
to paper deterioration or through faults,
vibration will increase markedly.
Interpretation
1. A trend can be established as
insulation system ages.
2. Test values are compared to previous
or factory tests.
Interpretation
1. When poor electrical connections
occur, the reluctance through the
magnetic core changes, resulting in
a change in the measured excitation
current.
2. The excitation current test relies on
reluctance of core.
3. A trend can be established as
insulation system ages.
4. Test values are compared to previous
or factory tests.
Interpretation
1. By the winding transfer function in
trace form, this test shows that damage
has occurred during shipping or during a
through fault.
2. Test values are compared to previous
or factory tests.
Interpretation
Test values are compared to previous or
factory tests.
Measures
1. The test results are evidenced also by
an increasing power factor.
2. Internal inspection should be
considered before re-energized.
3. If the problem is severe, the unit may
have to be taken out of service.
Measures
1. Other tests should also show
abnormalities;
2. Internal inspection should be
considered before re-energized.
3. If the problem is severe, the unit may
have to be taken out of service.
Measures
1. This test should be conducted before
and after transformer has been moved
or after experiencing a through fault.
2. This test can show the exact phase
position of problem.
3. Internal inspection should be
considered before re-energized.
4. If the problem is severe, the unit may
have to be taken out of service.
Measures
1. Extreme care must be exercised in
evaluating the source of vibration.
2. Internal inspection should be
considered.
 Table 18. Turns ratio test

Limit Diagnostics Interpretation Measures

Change in turns ratio to the nameplate
value > 0.5%
1. False turns ratio indicates the shorted
turns which may result from short
circuits, open circuits, or insulation
failures for service-aged transformers.
2. This value is above 0.1% for new
transformers.
Test values are compared to previous or
factory tests.
1. Set the tap changer position on which
the nameplate voltage is based.
2. Nameplate information for reclamation
transformers is based on the tap 3
position of the tap changer.
3. DGA and Doble tests have been
performed.

Table 19. Leakage reactance test

Limit Diagnostics Interpretation Measures

Difference from the nameplate 1. These changes in impedance indicate
Impedance: winding deformation, displaced wedging
> 3% and winding support as some events
occur, such as near-by lightning strikes,
through faults, or other surges.
2. Winding deformation can lead to
immediate transformer failure after
a severe through fault or a small
deformation can lead to a failure years
later.
1. When winding distortion occurs, the
reluctance to the magnetic flux changes,
resulting in a change in the measured
leakage reactance.
2. The leakage reactance test relies on
reluctance of spaces.
3. A trend can be established as
transformers age.
4. Test values are compared to previous
or factory tests.
1. This test complements capacitance
and excitation current tests and they are
used together.
2. Internal inspection should be
considered before re-energized.
3. If the problem is severe, the unit may
have to be taken out of service.

Table 20. Core-to-ground resistance test

Limit Diagnostics Interpretation Measures

Resistance A new transformer. A trend can be established as insulation 1. The unintentional core ground must
>1000 MΩ system ages. be corrected before energizing if below
10 MΩ.
Resistance A service-aged transformer. 2. This test is necessary if
> 100 MΩ C2H4, C2H6, and CH4 are present by DGA
test and all connections are good by
Resistance Deteriorating insulation between core winding resistance test.
10-100MΩ and ground.

Resistance It is sufficient to cause destructive

< 10 MΩ circulating currents.

Table 21. Winding resistance test

Limit Diagnostics Interpretation Measures

Resistance change to the factory value
> 5%
1. Loose connections on bushing, LTC,
and arrester may be detected.
2. Shorted winding turns or open
winding circuit.
Test values are compared to previous
or factory tests with the same reference
temperature.
1. This test is necessary if C2H4, C2H6,
and CH4 are present by DGA test.
2. Turns ratio, frequency response, and
Doble tests may indicate that this test is
necessary.

July/August 2008 — Vol. 24, No.4 37

 Figure 14. Fault location in a transformer winding [14].

Asset Management of Transformer
Asset management of transformers has gained an increas-
ing acceptance in the past 15 to 20 years, due to economic and
technical reasons. The fundamental objective is to prolong the
possible service life and to minimize operating costs. Operation,
maintenance, and refurbishment of a transformer must all be
considered together to determine the whole life-cycle cost for
the transformer.
The lifetime of a transformer is affected by the decrease in
electrical, thermal, or mechanical strength, related to the aging
of windings, tanks, bushings, or load tap changers. The aging
of windings depends strongly on the operating history of the
transformer, particularly on the thermal stress due to an overload.
Tanks are affected by corrosion which is related to operating
time and maintenance history. The aging of bushings due to
thermal stress depends on the operating load of the transformer.
During the normal operation of load tap changers, the operat-
ing reliability is affected by the particles produced in insulating
oils corresponding to the temperature as well as to the operating
frequency.
In oil-impregnated transformers, much attention has been paid
to the condition diagnosis of the cellulose insulating materials (pa-
per and pressboard). The insulating paper around the conductors
decays if it has been aged due to the heat dissipation of windings,
the loss induced by eddy-current, or the presence of water. Thus,
the effects of temperature and water on the lifetime of insulating
paper should be taken into consideration.
Furthermore, load tap changers are aged by charged particles
existing in insulating materials. If the electrical stress continues
for a long time, partial discharges produce so much decomposi-
tion that conductive paths are formed in dielectric materials and
the dielectric strength of insulating materials tends to decrease
with time.
The decrease of mechanical strength is the main cause of fail-
ures. Transformers are aged typically due to wear-out processes
such as material fatigue under cyclic loading. This may occur
when normal vibration causes failure or during the more severe
forces of through-fault conditions. When mechanical stress is
present, an empirical model based on a fatigue crack propagation
approach can be described.

Table 22. Ultrasonic and Sonic Fault Detection Tests

Limit Diagnostics Interpretation Measures

Frequency: Audible
1. Partial discharges most often occur
near the top of transformer in areas of
high voltage stress which can readily
be located.
2. Partial discharges located deep within
windings may not be sensitive enough to
detect and locate.
3. Loose parts inside transformer can be
located through the test.
4. Sonic (audible ranges) fault detection
can find mechanical problems such as
noisy bearings, gas leaks, or other loose
parts.
1. Low energy discharges from partial
discharge (corona) or full discharge
(arcing) emit energy in the order 20
kHz to 200 kHz. These frequencies
are above levels that can be detected
audibly.
2. Remedying these defects can
sometimes extend transformer service
life.
3. Test values are compared to previous
or factory tests.
1. This test should be applied when
H2 in DGA test increasing markedly.
CH4, C2H4, C2H6, and C2H2 may also be
increasing.
2. Internal inspection should be
considered.
3. This defect can be easily remedied.

38 IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine


Figure 15. Calculated failure probabilities: transmission
transformer (solid line); distribution transformer (dotted line).
Therefore, the failure probability of transformers (P(t)) can be
well described by the diagnostic model [23]
P(t) = f(E,M,T,t)
where E, M, T, and t are the electrical, mechanical, thermal stresses,
and lifetime, respectively.
Figure 15 shows the cumulative probability distribution of fail-
ure for transmission and distribution transformers which have the
obvious dependence on component age. Transmission transformers
cause primary failures in electric power systems, thus they are very
maintenance-relevant. For transmission transformers, the decrease
of mechanical strength is the most frequent cause of failure, also
yielding to the leakage of oil or the damage of metal shells to a
large extent. As significant equipment, distribution transformers
are affected in three ways by the degradation stress: leakage of
oil, abnormal operation of on-load tap changers, and accidental
voltage impulse on transformers.
Conclusions
In this paper, a methodology is developed to use data acquisi-
tion derived from condition monitoring and standard diagnosis
for rehabilitation purposes of transformers. The interpretation
and understanding of the test data are obtained from international
test standards to determine the current condition of transformers.
In an attempt to ascertain monitoring priorities, the effective test
methods are selected for transformer diagnosis. In particular, the
standardization of diagnostic and analytical techniques are being
improved that will enable field personnel to more easily use the
test results and will reduce the need for interpretation by experts. In
addition, the advanced method has the potential to reduce the time
greatly and increase the accuracy of diagnostics. The important aim
of the standardization is to develop the multiple diagnostic models
that combine results from the different tests and give an overall
assessment of reliability and maintenance for transformers.
July/August 2008 — Vol. 24, No.4 39
References
[1] R. James and W. Bartley, “Transformer asset management,”
Weidmann – ACTI Inc. Second Annual Conference, New Diagnostic
Concepts for Better Asset Management, Nov. 2003.
[2] CIGRE Working Group 12.05, “An international survey on failures
in large power transformers in service,” Electra, no. 88, pp. 21–47,
1983.
[3] Doble Client Committee on Transformers, “Analysis of replies to the
technical questionnaire on power transformer failures and troubles,”
Proceedings of the 65th Annual International Conference of Doble
Clients, pp. 8-2.1–8-2.10, 1998.
[4] IEEE Guide for the Evaluation and Reconditioning of Liquid Im-
mersed Power Transformers, IEEE Std. C57.140, 2006.
[5] IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Oil-
Immersed Transformer, IEEE C57.104, 2007.
[6] M. Duval, “Dissolved gas analysis: It can save your transformer,”
IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 22–27, 1989.
[7] IEC Std 60599, 1999, Mineral Oil-Impregnated Electrical Equip-
ment in Service - Guide to the Interpretation of Dissolved and Free
Gases Analysis.
[8] IEEE Std. 637, 2007, IEEE Guide for the Reclamation of Insulating
Oil and Criteria for Its Use.
[9] IEEE Std. 62, 1995, IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of
Electric Power Apparatus - Part 1: Oil Filled Power Transformers,
Regulators, and Reactors.
[10] IEEE C57.106, 2006, IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance
of Insulating Oil in Equipment.
[11] Y. Du, M. Zahn, B. C. Lesieutre, and A. V. Mamishev, “Moisture
equilibrium in transformer paper-oil systems,” IEEE Electr. Insul.
Mag., vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 11–20, 1999.
[12] J. Fitch, “The surface tension test - Is it worth resurrecting?,” Pract.
Oil Anal. Mag., Sept. 2002
[13] P. Thomas and A. K. Shukla Raghuveer, “Aging studies on pa-
per - oil to assess the condition of solid insulation used in power
transformers,” IEEE 7th Int. Conf. Solid Dielectrics, Eindhoven, the
Netherlands, 2001.
[14] H. Borsi and E. Gockenbach, “Monitoring, diagnosis and life
management of power transformers”, Conf. Maintenance Opera-
tion High-Voltage Electrical Equipment, (TechCon Asia-Pacific),
Sydney, Australia, May 2007.
[15] IEEE Std. C57.91, 2002, IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-
Immersed Transformers.
[16] Z. Korendo and M. Florkowski, “Thermography-based diagnostics
of power equipment,” Power Eng. J., pp. 33–42, Feb. 2001.
[17] J. Schneider, A. J. Gaul, C. Neumann, J. Hograefer, W. Wellßow, M.
Schwann, and A. Schnettler, “Asset management techniques,” Int.
J. Electr. Power Energy Syst., vol. 28, no. 9, pp. 643–654, 2006.
[18] IEEE Std. C57.12.90, 2006, IEEE Standard Test Code for Liquid-
Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers.
[19] IEEE PC57.149, 2004, A Guide to Frequency Response Analysis
in Oil-immersed Transformers.
[20] IEEE Standard Requirements, Terminology, and Test Code for Shunt
Reactors Rated Over 500 kVA, IEEE Std. C57.21, 2007.
[21] IEEE C57.12.00, 2006, IEEE Standard General Requirements for
Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power and Regulating Transform-
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[22] IEEE C57.113, 1991, IEEE Guide for Partial Discharge Measure-
ment in Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors.
[23] X. Zhang and E. Gockenbach, “Component Reliability Model-
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1183–1191, 2007.
 Xiang Zhang received the B.Sc., M.Sc., and Ph.D. degrees
in Electrical Engineering from Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an,
China, in 1989, 1992, and from the Aachen University of Tech-
nology, Aachen, Germany, in 2002, respectively. From 1992 to
1997, she was a research engineer at Xi’an High Voltage Apparatus
Research Institute, Xi’an, China. Currently she is a research fel-
low on asset management of networks of the Schering-Institute
of High Voltage Technology at the University of Hanover, Ha-
nover, Germany. Her main areas of interest include high voltage
apparatus, gas discharge, arc modeling, and asset management
of networks.
1982, he worked at Siemens AG, Berlin, Germany. From 1982 to
1990, he worked with E. Haefely AG, Basel, Switzerland. Since
1990, he has been professor and director of the Schering-Institute
of High Voltage Technology at the University of Hanover, Ha-
nover, Germany. He is member of VDE and CIGRE, chairman
of CIGRE Study Committee D1 Materials and Emerging Tech-
nologies for Electrotechnology, and a member of national and
international Working Groups (IEC, IEEE) for Standardization
of High Voltage Test and Measuring Procedures.

Ernst Gockenbach received the M.Sc. and

Ph.D. degrees in Electrical Engineering from the 02%#)3)/.7/5.$
Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany, - !' . % 4 7 ) 2 % ) . 3 5 , !4 ) / .
in 1974, and 1979, respectively. From 1979 to

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