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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 68, NO. 8, AUGUST 2021
Detection of Turn-to-Turn Faults in the Stator and
Rotor of Synchronous Machines During Startup
Saeed Afrandideh , Farhad Haghjoo , Senior Member, IEEE, Sérgio Cruz , Senior Member, IEEE,
and Mostafa Eshaghi Milasi
Abstract—An invasive diagnostic technique is proposed
in this article for the detection and discrimination of turn-to-
turn faults in the stator and rotor windings of synchronous
machines during the startup period. For this purpose,
search coils are installed in the machine to sense the rota-
tional magnetic field along the air-gap circumference, while
the difference in the related induced voltages (differential
voltages) reveals its distortion, using it as a criterion for
the detection of the faulty condition. Nevertheless, the rotor
speed is a time-variant parameter, which changes from zero
at the starting instant up to its rated value at a synchronous
speed. Consequently, during the generator startup, the fre-
quency of the induced voltages in the search coils needs
to be updated continuously for obtaining reliable values for
the differential voltages. A simple method is presented to
achieve this goal by detecting the sequential zero cross-
ing of the voltage waveforms. The proposed method is
verified through simulation and experimental results. They
show that the proposed diagnostic technique is capable of
detecting and discriminating stator and rotor turn-to-turn
faults during the machine startup period, both in generating
and motoring conditions, with suitable accuracy and secu-
rity. In addition, the region of stator turn-to-turn faults can
be easily identified.
Index Terms—Fault detection, fault location, rotor wind-
ing, startup period, stator winding, synchronous machine,
turn-to-turn faults (TTFs).
I. INTRODUCTION
URN-TO-TURN faults (TTFs) usually occur in syn-
T chronous generators (SGs) both in a steady-state operation
and in the startup period, when the rotor is accelerating. TTFs
are not uncommon in SGs, accounting for about 39% of all types
Manuscript received February 3, 2020; revised March 31, 2020 and
May 16, 2020; accepted June 10, 2020. Date of publication June 25,
2020; date of current version April 27, 2021. This work was supported
by FCT/MCTES through national funds and when applicable co-funded
by EU funds under the project UIDB/EEA/50008/2020. (Corresponding
author: Farhad Haghjoo.)
Saeed Afrandideh, Farhad Haghjoo, and Mostafa Eshaghi Milasi
are with the HV/MV Equipments Protection Research Laboratory
(HV/MV EPRL), Department of Electrical Engineering, Abbaspour
School of Engineering, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran 19839
69411, Iran (e-mail: s.afrandideh@mail.sbu.ac.ir; f_haghjoo@sbu.ac.ir;
m.eshaghimilasi@mail.sbu.ac.ir).
Sérgio Cruz is with the University of Coimbra, Department of Electrical
and Computer Engineering, 3030-290 Coimbra, Portugal, and also with
the Instituto de Telecomunicações, 3030-290 Coimbra, Portugal (e-mail:
smacruz@ieee.org).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this article are available
online at https://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2020.3003626
0278-0046 © 2020 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
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7485
of faults [1]. Typically, they are the result of an insulation failure
in adjacent turns, whose main causes are the thermal insulation
deterioration of the stator/rotor windings, overheating, overvolt-
age, vibration, and thermal cycling [2], [3]. TTFs are likely to
occur in both the rotor poles windings and in the stator windings.
In the case of a rotor turn-to-turn fault (RTTF), the shorted turns
are bypassed and they lead to a reduction of the effective number
of active turns of the excitation winding. Therefore, a RTTF
increases the excitation current and decreases the output reactive
power of the machine, may cause the rotor to be grounded at one
or two points, and the shaft magnetization [4]–[7]. In addition,
the temperature of the shorted turns is reduced in comparison
with the rest of the winding and a temperature difference will
appear in the rotor body. The high temperature difference may
cause the main shaft to bow, which will culminate in machine
vibration. On the other hand, RTTFs create rotor asymmetric
poles and will subsequently increase the machine vibrations.
In the case of stator turn-to-turn faults (STTFs), similarly to
RTTFs, the number of active turns of the winding is reduced.
In addition, a reverse ampere-turn appears in the faulty region
caused by the high current circulating in the shorted turns.
Therefore, unexpected heat is generated in the faulty region,
which may damage the insulation of adjacent turns and may
even burn the insulation of the magnetic core [8]. Since a STTF
occurs inside the stator windings and at an unknown location,
its detection is very difficult [9]. When the fault is located inside
a slot and cannot be isolated from the adjacent turns, if it is not
detected at an early stage, it will cause serious damage to the
generator [10]–[12]. Therefore, it may take several weeks for
the faulty generator to be repaired/replaced. On the other hand,
the generator outage may overload the rest of the grid [13].
Accordingly, several methods [14]–[26] have been proposed for
the detection of STTFs by evaluating the stator current harmon-
ics or signatures [14]–[18], zero-sequence voltage component
[19], [20], the machine inductance variations [21], [22], the
total harmonic distortion of the leakage flux [23], the air-gap
magnetic flux components [24], [25], and the harmonic content
of the field current [26]. Moreover, several methods [27]–[37]
have been proposed for the detection of RTTFs by evaluating the
stator frame vibration [27], the shaft-induced voltage [28], the
zero-load electromotive force [29], the electromagnetic power of
the machine [30], the external flux of the machine [31], [32], the
circulating current in the parallel branches of the stator winding
[33], and the radial air-gap magnetic flux [34]–[37]. However, all
of them were proposed to detect TTFs in steady-state conditions
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7486
(at rated frequency). Such techniques are incapable of detecting
TTFs during the startup at nonrated and/or variable frequencies.
It should be noted that if the generator is started with a STTF,
very likely the stator windings will be damaged earlier than
the generator reaches the steady-state condition. In addition,
starting the machine with a RTTF will increase the vibration,
thus, harming the bearings and reducing the winding insulation
lifetime.
TTFs detection is a significant issue during startup in large-
scale machines because they have long acceleration times (from
3 to 5 min [38]). In pumped-storage power plants, this issue is
even more critical than in SGs, because the machines in these
applications are operated sometimes as synchronous motors (to
pump the water from the lower reservoir to the upper one)
and sometimes as SGs (to produce electrical power using the
energy of the water flowing from the upper reservoir to the lower
one). Therefore, such machines need to be started and stopped
frequently [39], [40] and there is a high probability of occurrence
of TTFs during the machine startup.
There are different methods to start synchronous machines.
Frequency starting is one of them, which can be divided into two
basic methods.
1) Back-to-back starting, where the two machines (one of
them running as a motor and other one as a genera-
tor) connected via their stators are excited while still
stationary.
2) Partial frequency starting through a static/startup fre-
quency controller (SFC) system, where a voltage of low
frequency is applied to the motor and progressively in-
creased up to the rated value in order to connect it to the
grid.
The advantage of partial frequency starting over back-to-back
starting is that there is no need for a separate source of excitation
during the asynchronous stage [41].
Any existent TTF must be detected as soon as possible,
otherwise it may cause irreparable damage to the machine. Such
problem can also occur in machines with a TTF during their
startup as SGs.
Since during the startup period, the generator voltage grad-
ually increases proportionally to the frequency (ϕ ∝ v/f is
maintained constant during this period of time), the detection
of TTFs in this time interval will limit the machine damage
because at lower frequency and voltage values, the fault current
in the shorted turns of the stator is lower than the rated value.
In addition, the machine vibration at lower speeds and smaller
excitation currents is significantly less than at the steady-state
condition under the presence of RTTFs.
These advantages and detrimental effects of TTFs are high
incentives to work in this field of research and to find a reli-
able and secure procedure to detect TTFs during the machine
startup.
This article presents a flux-based invasive method to detect
TTFs during the startup period (variable frequency) by measur-
ing the air-gap flux distortion through some search coils (SCs)
installed along the stator circumference. The voltage induced in
each SC is proportional to the magnetic flux in the related region.
In healthy conditions, identical magnetic fluxes are seen by the
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 68, NO. 8, AUGUST 2021
corresponding SCs. As a consequence, the differential of the
induced voltages in SC pairs (that should sense equal magnetic
flux in normal conditions) is nearly zero. When a fault arises, the
variation of the magnetic field along the air-gap circumference
is not identical/symmetrical as the ampere-turns in the faulty
coil of the stator/rotor are reduced. Hence, the symmetry of the
air-gap rotational magnetic field (RMF) is lost, as sensed by the
SC pairs, and the differential of the induced voltages in those
SCs will contain the information need to detect the fault.
The capability of the proposed method to detect and discrim-
inate STTFs and RTTFs during the startup is verified by a finite-
element analysis (FEA) and by experimental tests conducted on
a sample 380 V, 8-kW, 4-pole salient pole synchronous machine
operating in generating and motoring modes, being this method
able to identify the faulty region in the case of STTFs.
Since all methods presented in previous papers were based on
the operation of the machine at rated frequency, the performance
of the proposed technique in this article cannot be compared
with them. However, from a general point of view, the pro-
posed technique, although invasive, does not need measuring
transformers (e.g., CT or PT). In addition, it is insensitive to
unbalanced voltage sources or to any harmonic content they
may contain when the machines operates in the motoring mode.
These features are due to the fact that the diagnosis uses directly
the air-gap magnetic field distortion through the differential of
the induced voltages in SC pairs. Moreover, the faulty coil
group (CG) can be identified in the case of STTFs. For the
case of RTTFs, the rotor faulty pole can be identified by offline
techniques.
II. PROPOSED TECHNIQUE FOR THE DETECTION OF TTFS
DURING THE SG STARTUP PERIOD
A. TTFs Detection
Magnetic flux sensors have been used in power transformers
[42]–[45], induction motors [8], [46], and SGs [24], [25], [34],
[36] for TTF detection in steady-state conditions, over the past
years. It has been shown that the RMF measurement by SCs
is an effective technique to observe the related distortion as a
consequence of TTFs with high security, suitable sensitivity, and
reasonable accuracy. Similarly to the papers mentioned above,
SCs are used in this article to observe the RMF and measure the
RMF distortion along the air-gap circumference.
Fig. 1 shows the stator winding arrangement of phase B and
the location of the installed SCs in the sample generator. Each SC
senses the RMF in its vicinity. As a common feature of STTFs
and RTTFs, already reported in previous papers [8], [46], the
magnetic flux density is mainly reduced in the faulty region.
Moreover, the defective region remains stationary under the
presence of STTFs, while it rotates at the rotor speed for RTTFs.
Accordingly, it can be concluded that the RMF distortion arising
from RTTFs is sensed identically by all SCs (similar distortion
is observable by all SCs), while the RMF deformation due to
STTF is more observable by the SC located in the faulty region
than by the other SCs.
The RMF distortion due to a TTF is sensed by measuring
the differential voltage associated to the induced voltages in
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AFRANDIDEH et al.: DETECTION OF TTFs IN THE STATOR AND ROTOR OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES DURING STARTUP
Fig. 1. Stator winding arrangement (four coil groups) of phase B and
the corresponding SCs (left) and the SCs installed in the sample SG
(right).
opposite SCs. As an example, the difference of the induced
voltages in SCB1 and SCB3 (ΔEB13 ) is a fingerprint of the flux
difference in the related regions (coil groups B1 and B3 in Fig. 1).
In other words, the difference of the induced voltages in dual
opposite SCs (ΔEs) can be considered as a suitable signature to
detect TTFs. However, there is an essential difference between
the induced voltage components due to STTFs and RTTFs.
STTFs affect the main component of the ΔEs (with frequency
f ), while RTTFs affect the f /p component of the ΔEs, where f
and p are the fundamental frequency component of the induced
voltages in the SCs and the number of pole-pairs of the SG,
respectively.
In steady-state conditions, the aforementioned signatures for
the sample 4-pole, 1500 r/min generator appears as 50 and 25
Hz components for STTFs and RTTFs, respectively. Neverthe-
less, during the startup period, the time-dependent frequency
is initially zero at the starting moment and increases progres-
sively, reaching the rated frequency when the rotor rotates at
the synchronous speed. So, it becomes necessary to estimate the
frequency during this period in a continuous manner in order to
obtain the f and f /p components of the ΔEs (CΔE f and CΔEf/p )
by using the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) to diagnose the
faults and discriminate them.
B. Scientific Base of the Proposed Diagnostic Technique
Each stator phase winding of the test machine includes four
coil groups that are series connected and each CG has three coils.
In the proposed technique, each CG of the stator is equipped with
a SC in the related magnetic axis.
Considering an ideal field distribution for this machine, SCs
associated to each phase have to observe identical RMFs in
healthy conditions, with the same amplitude and without any
phase shift. However, an electrical phase shift of 120° exists
between the voltages induced in SCs associated to each phase,
as the magnetic axes of the windings are displaced by the same
electrical angle.
By considering only the fundamental component (FC), the
magnetic flux crossing each SC, can be written as
ϕ (θm , t) = ϕm sin (ωe t − pθm )
where ϕm , ωe , θm = θe /p , and p are the amplitude of the mag-
netic flux, the electrical angular supply frequency, the mechan-
ical angular position of each SC, and the number of pole-pairs,
respectively [8].
Applying the Faraday’s law as Ns dϕ/dt, the induced voltage
in the jth SCs (named Ej ) with Ns turns (five turns in this article)
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7487
can be found as
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Ej (θmk , t) = ωe Ns ϕm cos ⎝ωe t − pθmk ⎠ (2)
     
Em θek
where Ej stands for the instantaneous value of the FC of the
induced voltage in the jth SC, with amplitude Em = ωe Ns ϕm
in healthy conditions [8].
The magnetic axes of the winding coil groups and the related
SCs are aligned. Also, each SC embraces entirely each CG of the
winding in each phase. In these conditions, the induced voltage
in each SC can be regarded as a portion of the internal voltage
of the corresponding coil group.
The supply voltage, when the machine runs in the motoring
mode, is applied to the series connection of the coil groups in
each phase. Since they are identical, the voltage across them will
be divided equally. So, the generated magnetic fluxes by all coil
groups in one phase of the machine are also identical. Taking this
into account, identical magnetic fluxes (including the FC and any
time harmonics that may exist in the supply voltages) will be seen
by the SCs in each phase in healthy conditions, which results
in identical induced voltages across them. Since the proposed
technique uses the differential of the induced voltages in the
SC pairs, the related harmonics will be neutralized in the ΔEs,
similarly to the FC. Such conditions are also preserved in the
case of an unbalanced voltage source, showing that the proposed
technique is insensitive to the power supply harmonics and/or
unbalanced conditions.
However, when a fault occurs, the variation of the magnetic
field along the air-gap circumference is not identical. For in-
stance if a TTF occurs in a one CG of the stator winding, the
resultant magnetic flux crossing the related SC will be reduced
because not only the number of effective turns in the faulty CG
is reduced, but also because reverse ampere-turns are created by
the current flowing through the shorted turns. Thus, the fault will
inevitably disturb the symmetrical form of the air gap RMF. In
such case, the induced voltages in the corresponding SCs cannot
be neutralized, leading to an increase of the related ΔE. In the
case of a TTF in the rotor winding, the mentioned magnetic field
distortion will appear as a rotational one, which will sweep all
SCs at different points in time. So, all SC pairs will see such
faults.
C. Frequency Estimation by Counting the
Reference Samples
The induced voltages in the SCs are not pure sinusoidal
signals. They contain high-frequency switching and/or noise
components, which cause incorrect frequency estimation, espe-
cially during the startup period. As such, a low-pass filter with
a cutoff frequency higher than 50 Hz (e.g., 100 Hz) can be used
(1)
to eliminate/reduce such unwanted signal components.
For the sample four-pole SG, two cycles of the induced
voltages in the SCs are required to calculate CΔE ΔE
f/p (i.e., Cf/2 ), at
ΔE
each time-step. In such conditions, Cf can be calculated by a
full-cycle DFT. Fig. 2 shows the filtered induced voltage in one of
the SCs and the related sign function used to determine the zero
crossings in order to estimate the frequency f . When the polarity
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7488
Fig. 2. Induced voltage in a SC (top), the related sign function, and
the updating of the frequency by measuring the samples in a two-cycle
window (down).
of the induced voltage in a specified SC changes from negative to
positive, it is considered a zero crossing (zc) of the signal. The
number of samples N between two sequential zero crossings
determines the frequency f = N ×T 1
= fNs , where T and fs are
the sampling period and sampling frequency, respectively.
Such logic can be realized through the sign function (sgn) by
the following statements:
If sgn(Ex [n − 2]) = − 1 and sgn(Ex [n]) = +1
⇒ zc (k) = n − 1.
Indeed, while the polarity of the filtered E changes from
negative to positive in the nth sample, the related sample in
that moment is considered as the new (kth) zero crossing. In this
way, the data window will be updated cycle by cycle, so that one
cycle comes out of the data window and a new cycle enters into
it, as shown in Fig. 2. Therefore, the frequency is calculated as
follow:
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 68, NO. 8, AUGUST 2021
detection of two cycles from startup, because it needs to count the
first three zcs. Indeed the obtained signal will not be necessarily
started from a zero crossing point and the first two-cycle window
is accessible after detecting the third zero crossing point as
f = fs /( zc(3)−zc(1)
2 ) . After this process, once the next zc is
detected, the frequency will be updated using the second and
fourth zcs, and this process will continue. Indeed, after the
detection of a new zc, the updated values for the CΔE f and CΔE
f/2
components can be obtained, which means one point of these
criteria in each cycle. In other words, a delay time exists between
any two sequential cycles, and this delay time will gradually
reduce as the speed of the machine increases, reaching 20 ms at
the rated frequency, i.e., rated speed.
E. Determination of Thresholds for STTF and
RTTF Detection
Two threshold values (Th) must be established to discriminate
the healthy condition from the faulty ones. Such thresholds (ThS
for STTFs and ThR for RTTFs) can be set as fixed values for all
frequencies or variable ones with some frequency-dependent
criteria. The imposition of fixed values for the thresholds is
a simpler process, being the one adopted in this article. In
this way, CΔEf and CΔE
f/2 are obtained for all ΔEs during the
startup period of the healthy machine. The maximum value of
all of them (individually for CΔE
f and CΔE
f/2 ) considering a time
window from the starting instant up to the rated speed/frequency,
(3) and using a safety margin of 20%, allows to obtain adequate
threshold values, as
⎧  
⎨ ThS = 1.2 × Max C ΔEs
 f  . (7)
⎩ ThR = 1.2 × Max C ΔEs
f /2
When the value of CΔE
f exceeds ThS or CΔE
f/2 exceeds ThR , an
indication of a STTF or RTTF condition is issued, respectively.

F. TTF Detection and Discrimination
zc (k) − zc (k − 2)
f = fs / k = 3, 4, 5, . . . (4)
2 As described in [8] and [46], the consequences of a STTF can
be listed as:
where zc(k), fs and f represent the kth zero crossing, the
1) decrease of the stator ampere-turns amplitude in the faulty
sampling frequency, and the estimated frequency, respectively.
coil due to the bypass of the shorted turns and the reduc-
It should be mentioned that the number of samples per one
tion of the remaining healthy turns;
cycle (N) is calculated based on a two-cycle data window with
2) creation of a reverse ampere-turn in the shorted turns of
(zc(k) − zc(k − 2))/2 elements.
the faulty coil;
The CΔEs
f and CΔEs
f/2 components of the induced voltage can 3) compensation of the reverse current flowing in the shorted
be calculated using the DFT as follows:
turns by the remaining healthy ones in the faulty coil,
zc(k) similar to a transformer.
f  2πf
CfΔEs = ΔEs (m) e−j fs m
(5) It can be concluded that STTFs will manifest themselves by
fs a reduction of the RMF in the faulty area. On the other hand,
m = zc(k−2)+1

zc(k)
under the presence of RTTFs, only the number of active turns
f  πf of the field winding will be reduced, and these turns will not
CfΔEs
/2 = ΔEs (m) e−j fs m . (6)
fs generate any reverse ampere turns. Indeed, the RMF reduction
m = zc(k−2)+1
due to the RTTF in the faulty pole creates an insignificant effect
on the RMF in comparison with a STTF.
D. TTF Detection Technique During Startup
Fig. 3 shows the flowchart of the proposed algorithm to
Initially, the desired components (CΔE
f and CΔE
f/p ) can be detect various TTFs, and discriminate STTFs from RTTFs and
extracted from the ΔEs using the DFT algorithm after the determine the faulty region of STTF during the startup period. As

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AFRANDIDEH et al.: DETECTION OF TTFs IN THE STATOR AND ROTOR OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES DURING STARTUP
Fig. 3. Flowchart of the proposed algorithm to detect various TTFs,
discriminate them and identify the faulty region for STTFs.
shown, the filtered analog signals are converted to digital signals
using an analog to digital converter (ADC), being one of these
signals used to estimate the frequency. After the detection of each
zero-crossing point and the estimation of the frequency, CΔE f
and CΔE f/2 are calculated by a full-cycle DFT for the frequencies
f and f /p (f /2 for the four-pole machine in this article),
respectively. Indeed, two cycles of the induced voltage in each
SC will be used to obtain CΔE f/2 , since the sin–cosine filters of
the DFT need to cover two cycles of the signal to obtain the
component at the frequency f /2. After this procedure, CΔE f
and CΔE f/2 will be compared with the related threshold levels,
which are determined when the machine is in healthy conditions.
CΔE
f being higher than ThS or CΔE f/2 being higher than ThR are
fingerprints of STTFs or RTTFs in the machine, respectively.
If a STTF is detected, the maximum ΔE (e.g., ΔExij orig-
inated by the induced voltages in SCi and SCj of phase x)
identifies the faulty coil candidates (e.g., ith and jth coils) in
the affected phase, and the SC with the lowest induced voltage
level (CΔE f ) identifies the faulty coil in that phase.
In the case of RTTFs, the faulty region rotates at the rotor
speed. Therefore, all SCs will sense the distortion of the RMF
as CΔEf/2 is higher than ThR for all differential voltages.
III. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROPOSED ALGORITHM
USING 2-D FEM
To verify the performance of the proposed algorithm and its
capability to detect TTFs, a 380-V, 8-kW, four-pole salient pole
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7489
Fig. 4. Two-dimension FEM of the sample SG: location of faults (top)
and SCs installed in the stator slots (down).
TABLE I
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF THE SAMPLE SG
TABLE II
DEDICATED SLOTS IN THE SAMPLE SG STATOR FOR COIL GROUPS (CGS)
AND THE RELATED SCS
SG is modeled using a 2-D finite-element model (FEM). Other
specifications of the machine are listed in Table I.
Fig. 4 shows the model of this machine in Ansoft Maxwell
v16 environment. The modeled STTF and RTTF regions and
the location of the five-turn SCs installed in the stator slots are
shown in this figure, too. Although the SC pitch can be chosen
identical to the winding pitch (six slots in the test machine), it was
selected wider than that so that each SC encompasses entirely
the related coil group. In fact, the final results are insensitive to
this parameter, because the differentials of the induced voltages
across the SCs are used. However, if the SC pitch is selected
smaller than the winding pitch, the resultant FC of the induced
voltage in each SC will be reduced. The specified slots for the
coils (each CG includes three coils) and SCs for the three phases
are listed in Table II. For example, the SC of the first CG of phase
A is mounted in slots number 1 and 9.
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7490
Fig. 5. Variation of CΔE
f and CΔE f/2
versus frequency for the simulated
SG in healthy conditions (first row), with a STTF of 5 shorted turns in
phase B (second row) and with a RTTF of 20 shorted turns (third row).
Fig. 5 shows the evolution of CΔE f and CΔEf/2 for all ΔEs
during the startup period of the SG in healthy conditions, and
for a STTF with 5 shorted turns in phase B (STTF5B) and a
RTTF with 20 shorted turns (RTTF20). As can be seen, both
CΔE
f and CΔE
f/2 for all ΔEs are zero during the startup period
in the healthy condition. Therefore, the threshold value for
detecting STTFs and RTTFs would be exactly zero for an ideal
machine (ThS = 0 and ThR = 0). In the face of STTFs, CΔE f
for some ΔEs will increase with the frequency, and the highest
increase is seen at the rated frequency (CΔE f/2 for all ΔEs are
unchanged). Among all differential voltages, ΔEB24 is higher
than the other ones for all frequencies, meaning that the second
and fourth coil groups of phase B are the faulty candidates. By
comparing the induced voltages in SC2 and SC4 in phase B,
the actual faulty CG can be identified. For the simulated RTTF,
CΔE
f/2 of all ΔEs increases with the frequency, while Cf
ΔE
of all
ΔEs remains unchanged. Therefore, it can be concluded that
the proposed technique acts as a secure method to detect both
types of TTFs and is able to discriminate STTFs from RTTFs
as well.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
A. Experimental Setup
The sample four-pole, 380-V, 8-kW salient pole SG with the
specifications in Table I was tested to verify the performance
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Fig. 6. Pictures and schematic diagram of the created taps in the coils
of the fourth CG of the phase B and in one pole of the field winding.
Fig. 7. Experimental test rig.
of the proposed technique in real conditions. Several taps are
available in the fourth CG of phase B of the stator windings of
this machine to create various STTFs with different number of
shorted turns (see Fig. 6). Through such taps, artificial TTFs can
be created involving 0.75% up to 25% of the total number of
turns of phase B. In addition, taps were also made available
in a rotor pole winding to create RTTFs with 10 up to 70
shorted turns (1.5% up to 10% of the whole field winding).
The induced voltages in the SCs are captured by a portable
data acquisition module (Advantech card USB-4711A) with a
sampling frequency of 2 kHz, as shown in Fig. 7. The sample
SG has been run in a healthy condition and also with different
STTFs and RTTFs. The induced voltages in the SCs were stored
during the startup period of the SG and the proposed diagnostic
method implemented using MATLAB. The obtained results are
described in the following sections.
B. Healthy Condition
Fig. 8 shows the induced voltages in the SCs (Es), ΔEs, and
the related CΔE and CΔE
f f/2 during the startup of the sample SG in
healthy conditions. The acceleration time of the SG has been set
at 5 s to reach the rated speed, by using an inverter-fed induction
motor as a prime-mover. In such conditions, the threshold values
for fault detection can be obtained. Since the sample SG does
not have an ideal construction, the maximum values of CΔE f
and CΔE f/2 are not negligible and the threshold values were set as
Ths = 0.38 V and ThR = 0.028 V in real conditions.
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AFRANDIDEH et al.: DETECTION OF TTFs IN THE STATOR AND ROTOR OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES DURING STARTUP 7491

Fig. 8. Induced voltages in the SCs (first column), ΔEs (second column), CΔE f (third column), CΔE
f/2
(fourth column), and a zoomed version of the
related signals (bottom) for the sample SG in healthy condition during startup.

EB2
Fig. 9. CΔE
f (first column), CΔE
f/2
(second column), and DFT of the induced voltages in the SCs installed in the candidate faulty coils (Cf and
E
Cf B4 ) (third column) in the face of STTF with five (top) and ten (down) shorted turns in the fourth CG of phase B.

C. STTF Condition observed in ΔEB24 . Since the induced voltage in EB4 is lower
than in EB2 , CGB4 is the faulty coil group.
Fig. 9 shows CΔE
f , CΔE
f/2 ,
and the induced voltages in the
As seen in Fig. 9, a STTF with more shorted-turns increases
candidate faulty coils in the face of STTFs with five and ten
CΔE and clarifies the faulty region with a higher resolution.
shorted turns. As can be seen clearly, the STTF increases CΔEf
f
Moreover, from the security viewpoint, a STTF does not trigger
significantly for all frequencies, while the highest increase is

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7492
Fig. 10. CΔEf (first column) and CΔE (fourth column) under the pres-
f/2
ence of RTTFs with 10 (first row), 20 (second row), and 70 (third row)
shorted turns.
the RTTF detection criterion, i.e., CΔE
f/2 does not exceed the
corresponding threshold value.
D. RTTF Condition
Fig. 10 shows CΔE f and CΔE
f/2 in the face of RTTFs with
10, 20, and 70 shorted turns. As can be seen, RTTFs increase
CΔE
f/2 significantly for all ΔEs along the entire frequency range.
Also, it can be seen that RTTFs with a higher number of
shorted turns increase identically all CΔE
f/2 . Moreover, from the
security viewpoint, RTTFs do not trigger a STTF detection cri-
terion. In fact, CΔE
f never exceeds the corresponding threshold
value.
E. STTF Detection in a SFC-Fed Synchronous Motor
To start the machine as a synchronous motor, it must be fed
by a static frequency converter (SFC), which starts by imposing
a supply voltage of low frequency to the motor, reaching the
rated frequency value during a predetermined time interval.
In this case, the high-frequency switching pulses caused by
the inverter have to be eliminated and this can be done us-
ing analog low-pass filters. Fig. 11 shows the induced volt-
age in one SC and the related filtered version, which clearly
shows the necessity of using such filtering circuits at the SCs
outputs.
Fig. 12 shows CΔE
f and CΔE
f/2 in healthy conditions and in the
presence of STTFs with five and ten shorted turns, when the
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 68, NO. 8, AUGUST 2021
Fig. 11. Induced voltage in a SC (left) and the related filtered signal
(right) in steady state.
machine is started as a motor fed by a SFC. Threshold levels are
determined in a similar manner to Section B. STTFs are created
manually at about t = 2 s during the starting period (predefined
as 5 s in these tests).
As can be seen, the values of CΔE
f are lower than Ths before
the fault occurrence, while they exceed the related threshold
value after a STTF occurrence.
Similar to the previous cases, the highest ΔE and the min-
imum induced voltage in the related SCs determine the faulty
phase and the related faulty coil group. It can also be seen that
CΔE
f/2 in both cases does not trigger the indication of a RTTF,
demonstrating the fault discriminating ability of the proposed
diagnostic technique. It should be highlighted that just one or
two ΔEs will exceed the ThR at the instant when the STTF was
imposed, but for a true indication of a RTTF, all ΔEs have to
exceed the corresponding threshold value.
In the case of traction drives or similar applications, where
the drive operates in a closed loop [47], the motor supply
currents are sampled at a much higher sampling rate than the
one used in this work. In those cases, the diagnostic technique
proposed in this article can still rely on a system with a rela-
tively low-sampling frequency by considering the use of analog
low-pass filters inserted between the SCs and the acquisition
hardware. Such filters will remove unwanted high-frequency
harmonics and avoid the aliasing effect at the same time. The
other option is to sample the induced voltages in the SCs at the
same sampling frequency used by the control system and then
apply digital low-pass filters, although this option imposes an
additional burden in terms of memory usage by the diagnostic
system.
F. Sensitivity to the Number of Shorted Turns
To evaluate the sensitivity of the proposed technique to the
number of shorted turns in the stator and rotor windings, some
additional experimental results are shown in Fig. 13. As seen, a
STTF or RTTF, with a specific number of shorted turns, can
be detected more easily at a higher frequency (speed). This
happens because more severe STTFs or RTTFs lead to higher
CΔE
f or CΔE
f/2 , respectively. In fact, there is an approximate
linear relationship between the fault indexes and the number
of shorted turns and frequency. For instance, CΔE f almost dou-
bles (for STTF5 ) when the frequency is changed from 20 to
40 Hz. A similar behavior can also be seen in the case of
RTTFs.
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AFRANDIDEH et al.: DETECTION OF TTFs IN THE STATOR AND ROTOR OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES DURING STARTUP 7493

EB2
Fig. 12. CΔE
f (first column), CΔE
f/2
(second column), and DFT of the induced voltages in the SCs installed in the candidate faulty coils (Cf and
E
Cf B4 )(third column) in healthy condition (first row) and in the presence of STTFs with five (second row) and ten (third row) shorted turns in the
fourth CG of phase B when the machine starts as a motor fed by a variable frequency converter.

The performance of the proposed technique was verified by

Fig. 13. CΔE
f for ΔEB24 during STTF occurrence (left) and CΔE
average of ΔEs during RTTFs (right) for three different frequencies: 20,
30, and 40 Hz.
V. CONCLUSION
A flux-based technique was proposed in this article to detect
and discriminate stator and rotor TTFs during the startup period
of synchronous machines, using the induced voltages in some
SCs mounted along the circumference of the machine air-gap.
The rotor speed (and accordingly the frequency) was estimated
using the induced voltage in one of the search coils. The DFT
was used to extract the f and f /p components of the air-gap
flux distortion, which was obtainable through the difference of
the induced voltages in corresponding SCs that have identical
values in healthy conditions.
simulation and experimental results. In addition, the perfor-
mance and security of this method were proven for the sample
machine when it operated as a generator and motor (fed by a
SFC).
The experimental results demonstrated that the proposed
method was capable of detecting and discriminating TTFs in the
rotor involving 1.5% of the number of turns per pole of the field
winding, and in stator involving 3% of the number of turns of the
f/2
for
stator winding of the sample machine. Furthermore, this method
was able to identify the faulty region in the stator windings
during the startup period.
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AFRANDIDEH et al.: DETECTION OF TTFs IN THE STATOR AND ROTOR OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES DURING STARTUP
Saeed Afrandideh received the B.Sc. degree
in electrical engineering from Shahid Chamran
University, Rasht, Iran, in 2016, and the M.Sc.
degree in electrical engineering from the De-
partment of Electrical Engineering, Abbaspour
School of Engineering, Shahid Beheshti Univer-
sity, Tehran, Iran, in 2019.
His current research interests include rotating
electrical machines protection by using digital
signal processing.
electric machines, electric drives, and power electronic converters, with
special emphasis on fault diagnosis, fault tolerance, and digital control.
Farhad Haghjoo (Senior Member, IEEE) re-
ceived the B.Sc. degree in electrical engineer-
ing from the Isfahan University of Technology,
Isfahan, Iran, in 1991, the M.Sc. degree in elec-
trical engineering from the University of Tehran,
Tehran, Iran, in 1994, and the Ph.D. degree in
electrical engineering from the Iran University of
Science and Technology, Tehran, in 2010.
He is currently an Associate Professor and
the Director of the HV/MV Equipments Protec-
tion Research Laboratory (HV/MV EPRL), De-
partment of Electrical Engineering, Abbaspour School of Engineering,
Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran. His main research interests include
application of digital signal processing for online condition monitoring,
fault diagnosis, and online protection of HV/MV equipments.
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7495
Sérgio Cruz (Senior Member, IEEE) received
the E.E. diploma, and the M.Sc. and Dr.Eng.
degrees in electrical engineering from the Uni-
versity of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal, in 1994,
1999, and 2004, respectively.
He has been with the University of Coim-
bra, Department of Electrical and Computer En-
gineering, where he is currently an Associate
Professor and the Director of the Electric Ma-
chines Laboratory. His teaching and research
interests include power transformers, rotating
Mostafa Eshaghi Milasi received the B.Sc.
degree in electrical engineering from Islamic
Azad University, Najaf Abad, Iran, in 2016, and
the M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from
the Department of Electrical Engineering, Ab-
baspour School of Engineering, Shahid Be-
heshti University, Tehran, Iran, in 2019.
His main research interests include digital sig-
nal processing and rotating electrical machines
protection.