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Human resource management. 10th. Nel, PS, Werner, A,

Botha Chapter 13
accounting sciences diploma (University of South Africa)

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Groups and teams

Amanda Werner

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

Indicate criteria that are associated with team effectiveness
Present a model that indicates key factors influencing team effectiveness
Differentiate between different types of work teams
Discuss various perspectives on team development
Explain how team building can contribute to team development
Discuss the provision of an enabling team environment
Explain team processes that enhance team success.

Keywords and concepts

Blind conformity
Community of practice
Conformity
Constructive controversy Distributed leadership
Group dynamics
Copyright 2014. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.

Groupthink Inertia
Norms
Role conflict
Role-breadth
Self-efficacy

OPENING CASE STUDY

As the newly appointed manager at UNIPRESS, Sam had no idea of how bad relationships were between
members in the printing department. For the first few weeks, she unobtrusively observed everyone. While

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Hoegl, Ernst and Prosperpio (2007) highlight the implications of virtual teams for management practice. The
use of a virtual team is not a given, but a managerial team design choice. In other words, a manager could
decide to rather use a local team instead of a dispersed team, to relocate dispersed individuals or to allow for
substantial travelling. If a manager decides to make use of a virtual team, more attention will have to be given
to teamwork quality. Issues that will require attention include mutual support, cohesion, open information
sharing and task coordination. Social skills and project management skills are important to the success of
virtual or dispersed teams and should be considered when employing, assigning or training team members.
Research has shown that team members are often selected for their technical skills and that social skills are
not even considered. Computer communication technologies such as video conferencing, Microsoft
Exchange or Skype can be utilised to increase collaboration amongst team members, but while these
technologies are insufficient due to low media richness, spontaneous or formal face-to-face meetings should
be encouraged when possible.

Multicultural and diverse teams

International business strategies necessitate the establishment of multicultural teams. Though team diversity
enhances information and decision-making capability it also poses social challenges (Butler and Rose, 2011).
Diversity can improve a team’s performance owing to increased perspectives, multiple interpretations,
greater openness to ideas, increased flexibility, increased creativity, improved problem solving, and improved
understanding of foreign employees or customers. Language and behavioural differences could compromise
excellence. Typical problems encountered in diverse teams are increased ambiguity, complexity, confusion,
mistrust, miscommunication, difficulty in reaching agreements, difficulty in reconciling diverse perspectives,
difficulty in reaching consensus, and decreased cohesion.
The general perspective is that, if differences are acknowledged and managed effectively, there is much
more to gain than to lose from using diverse teams (Butler and Rose, 2011). Building an effective
multicultural team often starts with diversity training. Group members should acknowledge cultural
differences and minimise stereotyping. The effectiveness of a multicultural team can be increased by:
A clear sense of a common purpose
A common language or procedure
Identifying and building on successes
Openly addressing issues flowing from cultural differences
Understanding one’s own cultural programming and its impact on individual and group behaviour
Having fun.

CASE IN POINT

Diversity at Shangri-La Australia

When a Hong Kong hotel group, Shangri-La, acquired an Australian hotel, they faced a number of cultural
issues that impacted on team work. Not only did employees from Hong Kong and Australia speak different
languages, but they also had different perceptions of authority, power, team work, customer service and
organisational commitment. The original mission statement of the hotel was ‘one team, one way, towards
dominance’ and the Australian employees, who were sensitive about equality, did not feel comfortable with
the word ‘dominance”. The mission statement was subsequently changed to “one team, one way, towards
excellence’. The Australian employees were also not used to singing company songs and socialising after
work. Being sensitive to these cultural differences, the management team was able to blend the best from
both cultures, and in a relatively short period, build a reputation as the number one hotel in Australia.
SOURCE: Hefferman and Droulers, (2008).

13.3 Group development

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Figure 13.3 the five-stage model of group development

A lack of time might result in groups not adequately resolving the issues that surface during each stage
(McKenna, 2012). These issues could then be suppressed by group members, yet influence interaction and
satisfaction. Though this model is linear in nature, in practice groups may go through some stages at the same
time or regress to previous stages. In a strong organisational context, where goals, structure, norms, and
information are provided, groups can move faster to the performing stage, and then the five-stage model
might have limited applicability. In the modern era, where piece work and project work become more and
more common, group members might find themselves in a less familiar environment with less clear goals and
undefined norms. Group members will have to establish a common ground before they will be able to
function effectively.

13.3.2 The punctuated equilibrium model

The punctuated-equilibrium model highlights a consistent time frame within which groups develop during
their existence. More specifically, the following has been found (Bergh and Theron, 2009:195):
The first meeting sets the group’s direction. Behavioural patterns and norms established during this
meeting direct the future behaviour of group members. If members socialise instead of concentrating on
the task, a clear message is sent out that the group’s priority is having fun rather than working at the task.
A behavioural pattern of having fun is established. On the other hand, if the group strongly speaks out
against a member who is not present, everyone will know that attendance is crucial and make sure they
attend all meetings in future.
The first phase of group activity is one of inertia. During this phase, little progress towards goal
achievement is visible. Group members feel that they have achieved a lot by having a first meeting, and
they then relax, as there is no immediate pressure to perform.
A transition takes place at the end of the first phase, when the group has used up half of its allotted time.
Exactly halfway between the first meeting and the official deadline, members of the group realise that they
have used up half their time, and that they have either done very little constructive work or taken the
wrong course of action. Members tend to criticise each other, and open conflict may occur.
Major changes are made with the transition. The group experiences heightened levels of energy and
activity. New expectations are determined. Goals are reviewed, new perspectives adopted, and alternative

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CLOSING CASE STUDY

Team work for developing a new business process

When an employee complained about how a sexual harassment case, in which she was the victim, was
handled by her manager and the HR department, a decision is made to revisit the company’s management of
such cases. The HR manager asked his secretary to arrange a meeting with relevant stakeholders, including
two HR consultants, representatives of different units and representatives of the two trade unions. When the
group met, the HR manager welcomed everybody, explained the reason why the meeting had been convened
and what they hoped to achieve. One of the employees questioned why he was part of the meeting as he
knew nothing about HR issues and he could not see what contribution he could make to the meeting. He felt
he could not waste time as he had important operational issues to attend to in his own unit. The HR manager
responded calmly that he was invited precisely because they wanted the opinions of line managers who were
mostly task-oriented and therefore struggled to deal with issues such as sexual harassment that could interfere
with the normal operational schedule. One person wanted to know what the law said about sexual
harassment. The question was answered by one of the trade union representatives, a person well versed in
labour law. The HR manager noticed that the female representatives were rather quiet and therefore explicitly
asked them what they thought the company was doing right, and not doing right, in terms of dealing with
sexual harassment. The discussion became heated and the HR manager cautioned everybody to respect the
opinions of others, listen attentively and focus on what they were trying to achieve. He encouraged the
female representatives to be frank and everybody to make meaningful suggestions. The group obliged and

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dysfunctional and therefore decrease group performance. Dysfunctional behaviours can range from being
aggressive, blocking constructive discussion by rejecting ideas, going off on a tangent, fooling around,
withdrawing, seeking attention to playing the perpetual victim.

13.4.3 Group norms and conformity

Over time, the interaction within the group leads to the development of group norms. Norms can be defined
as acceptable standards of behaviour within a group that are shared by the group’s members (Robbins and
Judge, 2009:326) Norms can range from how to perform, how to socialize, level of involvement to what to
wear. The strongest norms, called core norms, apply to the forms of behaviour that the group members regard
as the most important. There are also peripheral norms, and although it is not obligatory for members to
adhere to them, they are regarded as sound and worth the effort. Group members are positively rewarded for
adhering to group norms and punished if they do not comply. While some norms may enhance group
performance, others might be detrimental to group performance (McKenna, 2012). Group members seldom
think consciously of how norms affect performance and therefore it is useful to get an outsider to help them
explore this issue.
Norms may be formal, and explicitly stated by the group leader, for example: ‘Student cards must be
produced at each test’. Norms can also be informal and develop spontaneously from the interaction between
group members, for example, always sitting together in the same spot in class.
The success and continued existence of a group may depend on whether the members adhere to the group
norms. Groups that lack strong norms are unlikely to be as stable, long-lived or satisfying for their members
as groups with well-developed norms that are strongly supported by the members.
Conformity refers to the acceptance of group norms by its members. There is consensus in the literature
that a group member can react to group norms in three different ways: she or he may reject them, conform to
them, or accept only the important ones and ignore the peripheral norms.

CASE IN POINT

At one company, during induction, employees are made aware that attendance is important. New recruits are
told that they are employed to take responsibility and to make a daily contribution to the organisation. This
message is repeated by the team leader, who emphasises the role the employee has to play in the team and
that other team members rely on him or her to maintain synergy in the team.
At another company, the focus during induction is on absenteeism. Employees are reminded that the labour
law and company policy make provision for sick leave, and of the procedure to follow when sick. When
employees start working, they are quickly informed by their co-workers that sick-leave is there to ‘use or
lose’. Needless to say, this company has a much higher absenteeism rate than the first one.

The extent to which people conform to norms depends on a number of factors such as their values,
personalities, status, and needs. Individuals with low status in the group, for example, will tend to adhere
strictly to all the group’s norms so that the other group members will accept them. People with little
self-confidence also tend to conform to a greater extent, because they regard the group’s decisions to be
better than their own. Individuals who feel that the group’s goals coincide with their own also tend to
conform to a greater extent.
When a group member rebels against the group’s norms, he or she will experience considerable pressure to
conform, as noticeable nonconformity constitutes a threat to the group’s standard, stability, and survival. This
type of pressure may be particularly strong. Is conformity to norms good or bad? As stated already, norms
preserve a group’s existence and survival. However, blind conformity, on the other hand, may counteract
innovation, as the creative ability of a member will be lost to group conformity. ‘Groupthink’, the tendency
of a group to make a premature decision based on limited information, is the result of conformity. This
happens when everyone in the group supports a decision, without considering alternatives, in order to
preserve group solidarity. The ideal is probably that certain basic norms are supported, such as showing
respect to other group members, but that members are encouraged to be divergent and creative.

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Knowledge about the development of groups is very useful to assist groups in progressing towards goal
attainment. Work groups are effective only if a spirit of cooperation and combined action towards achieving
goals exists. In a dynamic working environment, where quick action is required, groups cannot afford to
waste time on conflict and other unproductive behaviour.
Different opinions exist in terms of how groups develop. We will discuss the five-stage model of group
development and the punctuated-equilibrium model.

13.3.1 The five-stage model of group development

Bruce W. Tuckman proposed the five-stage model of group formation (McKenna, 2012). The five stages of
group development are: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. Figure 13.3 illustrates
these five stages and some of the behaviours that are associated with each stage. During each stage, certain
group developmental tasks must be completed successfully for the group to be effective. The development of
groups does not necessarily take place in a specific order. Sometimes a group might experience two stages at
once, or regress to a previous stage.
Forming is characterised by uncertainty. Members do not know what is expected of them, and they are
often scared that they will not measure up or will not be accepted by other group members. They are also
unsure of the structure, leadership, and roles in the group. Groups progress successfully through this stage
once members perceive themselves as part of the group.
Storming reminds one of the way in which animals in the animal kingdom fight each other to establish
leadership and subordination. Human beings engage in a more psychological contest, where things such as
skill, experience, authority, popularity, personality, and even the cellphone one has assessed and
compared. This stage is characterised by interpersonal conflict, in the form of fighting or physical or
emotional withdrawal. Groups progress successfully through this stage when a leader has been chosen and
accepted, members become aware of and accept their roles, and a relatively clear hierarchy exists.
Norming is marked by cooperation and collaboration. During this stage members become aware of what
behaviour is acceptable or not. Members share information openly and are willing to listen to others. Close
relationships develop and cohesiveness increases.
The group progresses successfully through this stage when the group structure is relatively established,
behavioural expectations are clear, and the group is ready to function fully.
Performing is characterised by full participation of all group members. Energy and efforts are spent on the
task at hand. In some groups, performance is maintained at a constant level, while in other groups, through
the process of learning and development, higher levels of effectiveness and creativity are reached
continuously. The success of this stage is marked by goal attainment.
Adjourning marks the end of the group’s existence. Members look back at what they have achieved and
assess their experiences in the group. Emotions vary from satisfaction with achievements to a feeling of
loss of friendship.

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Cross-functional or project teams

Cross-functional teams are project teams that comprise representatives from a cross-section of the
organisation: manufacturing, engineering, marketing, research, development, and traders. The
cross-functional team has a specific task to accomplish, such as to develop a new product. These teams allow
people from diverse areas to analyse problems, exchange information, develop creative ideas, solve
problems, and coordinate complex projects. An example is a municipal team responsible for human
settlement development. Such teams can include environmentalists, city planners, architects, engineers,
quality surveyors, construction specialists and community leaders.
Three typical problems in teams include trust, cohesion and a clear sense of purpose. It is a challenging
task to build trust and cohesion in such a complex team and this is aggravated by the fact that, in modern
organisations, employees belong to many cross-functional teams at the same time. The group leaders should
have a clear understanding of group processes and clearly define the group’s purpose and direction (Field,
2009).

Virtual teams
Virtual teams interact interdependently across geographical, time and organisational boundaries. Team
members rarely or never meet face-to-face and instead use computer technologies as a basic means for
communicating and coordinating efforts (Berry, 2011). Virtual teams consists of networks of highly
competent individuals or experts assembled around a specific project or task and are therefore a great means
for knowledge sharing and innovation. A great advantage of virtual teams is that it can bring diverse
perspectives to a group and enhance learning and synergy. Members of a virtual team can either belong to the
same organisation, but work in different locations, or can be independent specialists who, for the duration of
a project, belong to the team.
The success of the virtual team depends a lot on the structure and management of the team. Temporal
independence of communication changes the patterns of work, decision making, and understandings about
the work and the relationships between the individuals involved in the work. As a consequence, managing
virtual teams is different and more complex than managing face-to-face teams, yet virtual teams are still
groups of individuals that share most of the characteristics and dynamics found in traditional teams. The
effective management of virtual teams requires knowledge and understanding of the fundamental principles
of team dynamics regardless of the time, space, and communication differences between virtual and
face-to-face work environments.
The following potential problems make the management of virtual work teams more challenging:
Trust: Members could mistrust each other owing to the perception that their contributions might not be
adequately valued and presented by others.
Expectations: Members might be unsure of what is expected of them and what they are allowed to do and
not do.
Cultural differences: These differences can inhibit cohesion, participation, and open communication.
Work coordination: A real danger for virtual teams is a slow response time in dealing with each other and
environmental demands. Members might become despondent if they feel that no progress is made.
Group dynamics: Virtual teams do not have the same opportunities as other teams to build rapport.
Leadership: The leader is not in physical contact with members to influence them on a daily or weekly
basis. The leader must be aware of the above-mentioned factors and manage them proactively.

Information box 13.1

Daft (2008) has the following suggestions to leaders of a virtual team:
Select the right team members. Team members need technical, interpersonal and communication skills
to work effectively in a virtual environment. Team members also need to know why each person was
selected, which increases trust and commitment in the team.
use technology to build relationships.
agree on ground rules relating to authority, roles, individual goals, deadlines and expectations.

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synchronise efforts towards the attainment of a common goal, achieving a level of performance that is greater
than the sum of the individual inputs (Butler and Rose, 2011; Robbins and Judge, 2009: 357).
A team typically has the following characteristics:
Group members focus on a mutual goal or objective, which ideally should be aligned with the overall
organisational vision and strategy
The group has task interdependence, meaning group members must consciously interact and collaborate to
achieve a common goal or objective
Members relate to each other as a team and develop a team identity and a sense of cohesion
Members agree on and abide by behavioural norms.

Figure 13.1 illustrates the four sociological criteria of a team.

Figure 13.1 Sociological criteria of a group

13.2.1 A model for work team effectiveness

Teams do not operate in isolation, but within the broader external and internal organisational environment.
Teams function within an organisational context, which can either enhance or limit effective team
functioning. The organisational vision, mission, values and strategy provide direction for team functioning
and ideally all team goals, processes and behaviours should be aligned with the strategic direction of the
organisation. Organisations that utilise teams normally have flatter structures as decision-making is
decentralised and distributed. A constructive organisational culture that endorses values of collaboration,
team work, knowledge sharing and excellence, as well as supportive technology and HR processes (including
reward processes), will create a more fertile environment for effective group functioning. Managers
determine what type of teams is required to attain organisational goals, and are responsible for the
implementation of teams. Informal teams can also develop spontaneously as members of the organisation
informally collaborate to achieve goals and satisfy social and personal needs. Group structure is created
through leadership, norms and roles and provides the framework within which teams function to ensure that
the group does not disintegrate into chaos. The composition of a team is very important as factors such as
diversity, complementary skills and attitudes can have a tremendous impact on the success of the team.
Ultimately, it is the team processes, such as group development, communication, collaboration, information
sharing, problem identification/solving and healthy conflict that create a high performing team. Team
effectiveness can be measured in terms of quality outputs, customer satisfaction, personal satisfaction and the
ability of teams to continuously learn and adapt to new demands (knowledge management).
Figure 13.2 presents a model for work team effectiveness.

Characteristics of successful work teams

The following characteristics describe a high performing work team:
The group has a clear vision and goal, which are internalised by each member.
The group consists of a diverse group of individuals who, owing to their unique characteristics, make

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actions taken.
Phase two is a new equilibrium or period of inertia. During this phase, plans adopted during the transition
phase are carried out. The group is once again locked in a fixed course of action.
The group’s last meeting is characterised by a burst of energy. Consider a group of students just before
they have to hand in a project or assignment. They often work long and late hours to finish their work,
make final changes, do last minute typing and printing, and then rush to hand in the final document.

Figure 13.4 provides a schematic representation of the punctuated-equilibrium model.

Figure 13.4 the punctuated-equilibrium model

When comparing the five-stage model with the punctuated-equilibrium model, we can say that the group
goes though forming, norming, and storming during the first meeting, followed by a stage of low
performance, then through another phase of storming and norming, followed by a stage of high performance
before finally adjourning.

13.4 Providing an enabling group environment

How a group is designed or configured has an impact on the functioning of the group. Structural aspects such
as leadership, roles, norms and size, when carefully considered, position the group better for success. These
aspects provide the necessary order in the group for group members to focus and stay together. The success
of the group then depends on the quality of group processes, such as leadership behaviour, communication,
debate and decision making.

13.4.1 Group leadership

Leadership in teams is important as leaders influence the climate in a team and the behaviour of team
members. A leader is someone who has the ability to inspire group members to achieve group goals
voluntarily and enthusiastically. Leadership influence depends on the type of power that a leader can exercise
over followers. This power varies from reward power to coercive, legitimate, referent and, finally expert
power. The most important point here is that each group has a leader at any given time, and that the person
who is formally appointed is not necessarily the leader.
When team leaders demonstrate transformational leadership, they are more likely to influence the self
-efficacy and role-breadth of team members, as well as their confidence to take on new roles, which in turn
make team members more proactive. This means that team members will take initiative, identify and solve
problems themselves and bring new ideas into the team. Transformational leaders typically provide
intellectual stimulation to team members and communicate in an inspiring manner (Strauss, Griffin and
Rafferty, 2008).
To function successfully, leaders need technical expertise, good communication skills, and a willingness to
be accountable for the group. In addition, leaders need to be well-trained in the functioning of groups so that
they can become aware of group dynamics and help the group to optimise the combined potential of all its
members.
A modern perspective is that leadership does not belong to a select few people in the organisation and that
organisations will be much more effective if leadership is spread out across all functions and layers. This is
called distributed leadership. The principle is that power must be put in the hands of people on the ground –
those who are closest to the situation. The utilisation of self-managed work teams is an example of
distributive leadership. However, it goes even further. The implication for teams is that leadership is not
necessarily vested in one chosen team leader, but that, at any given time, any team member can take on the

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well as the legal consequences of making an unethical decision. The team should not only actively advocate
for a culture of high ethical standards but also put systems and processes in place for transparency and
accountability.
High performing teams reflect on both the outcomes of decisions as well as the effectiveness of the
decision making processes. They then find ways to improve. If team members feel they are unable to make
objective decisions, they can invite independent observers. If they are worried about groupthink, they can ask
one member to act as ‘devil’s advocate’. The group may seek the wise counsel of experts, create rules for
decision making or simply schedule more time for discussion. The point is that they continuously try and
improve.

13.6 Conclusion
Organisations utilise groups and teams to benefit from the tacit knowledge in the minds of employees. Many
different types of groups are used in organisations.
Groups are defined as a collection of individuals who interact with each other to achieve a common goal,
whose behaviour is directed by a common set of norms, and who share a common identity.
Groups and teamwork do not guarantee higher performance levels. Many organisational, structural and
interactional factors influence the effectiveness of groups. These factors should be identified and managed
continuously. When groups are able to manage themselves well, they do contribute to greater employee
commitment and organisational effectiveness.
High performance teams are teams that continuously strive to improve what they do and how they do it,
they push previous standards and they gain a positive reputation for the contribution they make to the
attainment of organisational goals.

TEAM-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Ask all the members of a group or team to complete the questionnaire below anonymously. Analyse the
responses and give feedback to the group. Provide suggestions to the group as to how they can improve the
functioning of their group or team.

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some people simply ignored each other, others got involved in verbal altercations. There was little
consideration for other people and no sign of collaboration. The department developed a bad reputation in the
organisation, and customers complained about poor service.
Sam decided to address the situation head-on. She identified various informal leaders in the group and
asked them to give her their take on the situation so that she could be aware of the different perspectives and
issues that were at stake.
She then arranged a meeting at an external venue which everyone in the department had to attend. They
informed everyone that the purpose of the meeting was to resolve issues in the department and to develop a
strategy for the road ahead.
At this meeting, she cleverly used name tags to indicate where each person should sit so that she could
break up existing cliques and encourage communication in the group. She asked the group members to revisit
the vision and values of the company, which included excellence, focus on the customer and respect for
people. Instead of focusing on problems, she asked the group to list those things in the department that
worked well, what they appreciated about each other, and how they could better satisfy customers’ needs. At
first the group was antagonistic and Sam had to use her best facilitation skills to encourage participation,
resolve disagreements, manage the flow of communication and synthesise the issues and feelings that
surfaced. The open discussions helped everyone to better understand the different perspectives and to see
that, by integrating different ideas, the department could improve collaboration, continuously improve and
serve customers better. At the end of the discussion the group decided that customers would be best served if
three small units, each addressing a specialist area, were formed within the department. Sam drew a new
structure for the department on a whiteboard, and the group agreed on the role of each unit. It was also
decided that group members would rotate among the different departments to encourage multi-skilling and
collaboration. The group also agreed on new protocols for dealing with customers and each other. Sam
thanked everybody for their patience, participation and willingness to solve problems, and promised to have
regular informal discussions and formal meetings in future to monitor the department’s progress. Sam was
realistic enough to know that there would still be issues to resolve in future, but she felt positive that the
department as a whole would be able to tackle these issues in a constructive manner.

13.1 Introduction
Many organisations use teams to attain high levels of performance and innovation in a rapidly changing and
competitive environment (Gardner, Gino and Staats, 2012). The adoption of team-based work arrangements
create a flat, focused, flexible, and adaptive organisation capable of rapid responses to change. Group and
teamwork allow for greater participation, increased performance, and ultimately influence the motivation and
satisfaction of employees. Many teams consist of knowledge workers who belong to different teams at the
same time or execute a task and then move on to different teams. In a virtual team, team members are
physically dispersed and communicate and coordinate activities through various web-based systems.
Changing to a team-based organisational structure does not guarantee success. Some groups tend to be
more successful than others, and this is why it is essential to investigate the factors that contribute to effective
group functioning.
In this chapter, we will explore the nature of groups, how they develop, and the factors that contribute to
effective group functioning. We will examine the difference between groups and teams, and give special
attention to the utilisation of teams in the workplace.

13.2 Teams and team effectiveness

A group is not the same as a team. A group consists of people who come together to share information and
assist each other to perform. In a group there is an element of individualism and independence, meaning
everyone is more responsible for individual output rather than for the collective output of the group. Group
performance is the summation of the individual inputs from the group members.
A real team, on the other hand, refers to two or more individuals with complementary skills interacting
with each other according to a specific strategy to achieve particular goals, and who share a common identity
and have common norms. Most teams have less than 15 members. A team exerts positive energy and

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unique contributions to the group’s success.

They are led by high performance leaders and have members who act as leaders by embracing
responsibility, exerting influence to make things happen and holding each other accountable.
Even though the group might have a formal leader, leadership shifts from member to member depending
on the task at hand.
Open and passionate debate is encouraged, and members are willing to consider all ideas with an open
mind.
Interpersonal relations are relaxed, with ample open communication and mutual support.
Group members identify strongly with the group, and feel proud of the way the group functions as well as
its achievements.
Change is not feared, but continuously initiated.
Networking with outside individuals and groups is used to achieve excellence and to build credibility.
Group members reflect on their own development and performance, and seek opportunities for continuous
learning. This is called team reflexivity.

13.2.2 Types of work teams

Many types of work teams are used in the workplace. Examples of work teams are production and service
teams, self-managed work teams, problem-solving teams, cross-functional teams, virtual teams, and
multicultural teams. These teams differ in terms of their nature and purpose.

Production and service teams

Production and service teams are responsible for the core work in the organisation. These teams are ongoing
and can last for years and years, with employees entering and leaving. Examples are assembly teams in motor
manufacturing businesses, medical teams taking care of patients or a design team at an advertising agency.
When these teams are managed as independent business units, they are called self-managed work teams.

Figure 13.2 A model for work team effectiveness

Self-managed, self-directed or semi-autonomous work teams

Self-managed work teams are formed to take accountability for a complete work process that was previously
perceived to consist of separate jobs, often performed by separate departments. The ideal design for a work
team allows it to take a product through the entire production process. The team manages an entire
mini-business, where the process starts from buying raw material from an external vendor, and ends with
delivering a finished product or service to an external customer. An example of a self-managed team is a unit
in a motor manufacturing company responsible for manufacturing a specific make of car, or a unit in a shoe
factory responsible for a type of shoe, for example, school shoes.
The team enjoys autonomy over how it meets the customer’s demands. An example of how a team-based
design differs from the traditional functional approach can be illustrated with a shoe factory. Previously, a

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leadership role, depending on how complimentary the person’s competencies are to the situation the team is
facing, and the competencies of the other team members (Serrat, 2009). By moving team members in and out
of leadership positions, the team can tap the leadership potential that exists in individuals.

13.4.2 Roles
In effective groups, the members play different roles that help the group function optimally and achieve its
goals. A role refers to a set of expected behaviour patterns associated with someone in a given position in a
group. Each role has associated attitudes and behaviours that create role identity. People find it relatively
easy to learn new roles, and to shift from one role to another. Consider the change in behaviour and attitude
of a machine operator who has been promoted to supervisory level. Most of the time, such a person will
adopt a pro-management attitude and orientation.
Understanding roles is complicated by the difference between role expectation and role perception. Role
expectations are defined as how others believe an individual should act in a given role. Most of us have
stereotyped conceptions about how certain roles should be acted out. We expect different behaviours and
attitudes from a minister, manager, professor, prison warden, waitress, and soccer coach. Role perception
refers to how we believe we should act out our roles. Many women experience a discrepancy between
traditional role expectations and their own perceptions of how they should fulfil their roles. This discrepancy
can cause a lot of frustration and tension, both in the workplace and at home. When we compare the
traditional employment contract to the new employment contract, we see vast differences between what was
expected of employees before and what is expected of them today.
Previously, employees were expected to be at work and deliver a decent amount of work. Today
employees are expected to make a meaningful contribution to the organisation and manage their own careers.
Employees’ role perception should change accordingly. Conflict in groups occurs when members perceive
their roles differently to what is expected of them. It is important that roles are clarified through open
discussion.
Role conflict occurs when a person performs multiple roles, with contradictory role expectations. A HR
manager trying to satisfy the needs of both managers and employees might experience role conflict.
Managers might emphasise cost-cutting measures while employees demand higher wages.
When we belong to more than one group, which places different demands on our time and perspectives,
tension occurs.
People also assume different roles in groups at different times. These roles are illustrated in Figure 13.5.
Figure 13.5 team member roles

Task roles Maintenance roles

Initiator Coordinator
Information seeker Evaluator
Information provider Recorder
Procedural overseer Follower
Coordinator Peacemaker
Evaluator Gatekeeper
Recorder Reflector of feeling
People assuming task roles spend time helping the group achieving its goals, while those assuming
maintenance roles focus more on relationships and unity within the group. It is necessary to find a balance
between these roles. Too much focus on task roles might alienate team members, while too much focus on
maintenance roles might decrease performance. In addition, a group member might assume roles that are

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weight yet expect to benefit from the hard work of others. The last psychological event, production blocking,
happens during brainstorming sessions, and is characterised by members withholding their ideas because they
perceive the public verbalisation of their ideas with those of others as a competitive process.
In order to get the most out of group decision making, appropriate decision-making techniques should be
utilised. The following techniques are very useful to stimulate creative thinking while preventing domination
by individuals:
Brainstorming. This process is frequently used to provide the maximum number of ideas in a short period
of time. A group comes together and is presented with a problem. Members are then encouraged to
generate as many ideas as possible to solve the problem. The emphasis is on quantity and not quality, and
members refrain from making any remarks about the presented ideas. Weird ideas are welcomed as a way
to stimulate the thoughts of others. Once a satisfactory number of ideas has been presented, the ideas are
analysed and evaluated systematically.

GROUP DECISION MAKING

ADVANTAGES
Sharing of knowledge and experience in
decision analysis and alternative design
Increases support for the decision
Increases responsibility taken for
decision implementation
Stimulates communication and
discussion in the organisation
In line with social and political changes,
and therefore perceived as more
legitimate
Serves as a developmental tool by
exposing people to each other’s ideas
Empowers people to participate in
organisational processes.
DISADVANTAGES
It is time-consuming
More demanding for the leader to facilitate the meeting
and manage behaviour
Pressure to seek conformity may lead to less than optimal
decisions
The formation of cliques and pre-meeting agreements can
negate the virtue of group decision-making
People often act impulsively during group meetings, and
decline to take responsibility for implementation of ideas.

Figure 13.7 Advantages and disadvantages of group decision making

Nominal group technique. This technique is excellent for ensuring full participation without individual
domination. Individuals meet as a group, and they silently generate ideas in writing. This silent period is
followed by a round-robin procedure in which each group member presents an idea to the group that is
then recorded on a flip chart. Once all the ideas are presented, each idea is discussed for clarification and
evaluation. Finally, the group members conclude the meeting by silently and independently recording their
rank ordering of the ideas. The scores are tallied and the idea with the highest ranking is chosen. It is
called a nominal group owing to the limited interaction among group members.
Delphi technique. This technique is used with group members being physically dispersed. Participants
never meet face-to-face. A facilitator presents members with a carefully designed questionnaire to provide
potential solutions to a well-defined problem. The questionnaires are completed independently and
returned to the facilitator, who summarises the results. These results are circulated back to the members
who will offer a second round of input. This process is then continued until members reach consensus. The
Delphi technique can be conducted electronically though sophisticated computer technology to save time
and expenses.

An important aspect of decision making is making ethical decisions. This implies considering the short-term
versus the long-term impact of the decision, the impact of the decision on a broad range of stakeholders as

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13.4.4 Status
Status refers to the relative social position a person has in comparison to others in the group. Status is
important because it is a motivational factor and also influences the behaviour of those who experience
disparity between what they believe their status is, and what they believe others perceive their status to be.
Status can be formal or informal, and is awarded as follows:
Scalar status refers to status obtained through an individual’s formal position in a group. A supervisor has
status owing to the authority associated with his or her position.
Functional status is earned through the task a person has to fulfil in the group.
A computer technician, who is on a lower level in the organisational hierarchy, might have more status
than a manager owing to his or her ability to solve everyone’s computer problems.
Achieved status is earned through hard work and effort, and based on the individual’s qualifications and
achievements. We are all impressed when there is a professor in our midst!
Ascribed status refers to inborn characteristics over which we have limited or no control, such as
attractiveness, gender, build, and age.

Information box 13.2

The following are some of the contributing factors in status difference found among students. Which of
these factors are perceived as most important?
Previous school attended
Excellent performance
Being chairperson of a student body
Good looks and fashionable clothing
Level of study (first versus third year).

Status differences can either facilitate or hinder group interaction. They facilitate interaction when members
perceive status differences as equitable, that is, they believe those with higher status rightfully deserve more
status. Lower status members in this case are more willing to follow the directives of high status members.
Consider the training department as a (command) group, where the training manager has more status owing
to his or her authority, expertise, and skill. On the other hand, status differences might be inappropriately
emphasised in a group where members are supposed to work as equals. It happens far too often that when a
group meets to brainstorm ideas, those with lower status hesitate to share ideas, and ultimately, criticise the
ideas of others.

13.4.5 Group size and composition

Size influences a team’s overall performance, but it also depends on the purpose of the group. Large groups
make it more difficult for team members to interact with all other team members. The larger the team the
more likely it is too that team members will be located away from each other (Hoegl, Ernst and Prosperpio,
2007).
Larger groups (12 or more members) are generally preferred when a group has to produce divergent ideas
or alternatives. A large group offers greater combined experience and ideas. One negative aspect of a bigger
group is social loafing, which is when some individuals lessen their input knowing or hoping that others will
unwittingly stand in for them. This has an important implication for organisations that utilise groups as a
means to improve employee satisfaction and productivity. Even though an individual works in a team, his or
her individual efforts must be identifiable and measurable.
A small group is better at executing a task than a large group. Smaller groups are more effective with the
execution of tasks. Smaller groups work faster and responsibility is more explicitly given to individuals.
Groups of five to seven members are preferable. An odd number prevents a tie with voting. Groups made up
of five to seven members combine the best of small and bigger groups, with the group small enough to avoid
domination, the formation of cliques and inhibited participation, and large enough to allow for diverse input

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(Bergh and Theron, 2009). Group composition relates to the extent to which group members are alike. A
homogenous group shares a number of similar characteristics such as race, gender, socio-economic
background, education, age, work experience, or cultural orientation. A heterogeneous group, on the other
hand, is composed of individuals who have few or no similar characteristics. In South Africa, work groups
are more likely to be heterogeneous than homogeneous.
A heterogeneous group will most likely be able to perform at a higher level in terms of creativity.
However, in order to synergise the group to high levels of effectiveness, the group has to manage conflict
constructively.
We should also consider the group demographics – the degree to which members of a group share the
same demographic attribute such as age, gender, race, tenure, or qualification. This becomes important when
most individuals in the group share the same characteristics, with the exception of one or two.
Imagine being the only male or female in a group, or the only person without a remarkable qualification.
People are more likely to leave a group if they are different to others in terms of any attribute that they
perceive as relevant to their feeling comfortable.

13.5 Enhancing effectiveness through team processes

So far we have discussed factors, such as norms, roles and composition that provide structure to groups.
Structure is important because it creates order within a group and ensures that the group continues to exist.
Ultimately, how group members act within these structures determine whether the group will be successful
and move from the status of being a group to being a high performing team. Important processes in groups
include communication, constructive disagreement and decision making.

13.5.1 Communication
Communication is firstly aimed at accomplishing tasks and secondly, at satisfying the social-emotional needs
of employees (McKenna, 2012). A fine balance between meeting these two purposes is required. Task-related
communication includes sharing information, clarifying issues, presenting new ideas and solving problems
together. Without effective communication a group cannot achieve its primary goal. However,
communication is clearly a social process. A variety of social influences affect the accuracy with which we
perceive information. These include differences in status, language, frame of reference, and expectations as
well as selective listening, premature judgements, and source credibility. Communication contributes to
group cohesion and group identity.
Most people assume that they are good communicators. Yet, most interpersonal problems stem from
misunderstandings. People do not formulate their messages accurately, and do not listen attentively to what
others say. They assume others must know what they think and feel without sharing their thoughts and
feelings clearly. Many barriers, such as background differences, language differences and status differences
also complicate communication. Should it become evident that communication is a problem in a group, it
should not be ignored, but addressed in appropriate ways.
There are the following guidelines for effective communication in groups and teams in organisations:
To stimulate constructive communication, create dialogue around the vision and values of the team and
how they link to the organisation’s success.
Create a community of practice. A community of practice consists of team members that take a
professional view of their activities and create collaborative opportunities for reflecting on current team
practices and creating new knowledge (Cambridge, Kaplan and Suter, 2005).
Ensure that communication is productive. Productive communication is characterised by openness,
assertiveness, acceptance of differences and instilling energy into the group.
Call out unproductive communication related to blaming, stereotyping, fault finding and creating division.
Foster passionate and open debate of key issues by creating trust in the team. Team members that are
willing to be vulnerable with each other are open to discussing their strengths and weaknesses and
receiving feedback from others (Lencioni, 2007).
Encourage principles of effective communication such as sending clear messages, listening reflectively,
giving feedback, communicating ethically, responding to non-verbal messages and communicating in a

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Cambridge, D., Kaplan, S. and Suter, V., 2005. Community of Practice Design Guide. A Step-by-Step Guide
for Designing & Cultivating Communities of Practice in Higher Education. [online]. Available at: <
http://net.educause.edu/ir/ library/pdf/nli0531.pdf> {Accessed August 2013]. Daft, R.L., 2011. Leadership.
5th ed. UK: South Western
Cengage Learning.
Field, A. April, 2009. Diagnosing and fixing dysfunctional teams: Three interrelated issues cause most team
dysfunction. Harvard Management Update. Hefferman, T. and Droulers, M., 2008. East and West: the
successful integration of cultures at Shangri-La, Sydney. The Marketing Review, (3): 297-309 Hoegl, M.,
Ernst, H. and Prosperpio, L., 2007. How teamwork matters more as team member dispersion increases.
The Journal of Product Innovation Management 24, pp.156–165 Lawler, E.E., 1996. From the ground up.
San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Nelson, D.L. and Quick, J.C., 2006. Organisational behaviour. Mason, Ohio: Thompson.
Lencioni, P., 2007. Conquer team dysfunction. [online]
Available at: <www.tablegroup.com/books/dysfunctions/Conquer%20Team%20Dysfunction.pd > McKenna,
E., 2012. Business psychology and organizational behaviour. Psychology Press: NY, New York. Potgieter,
T., 2007. The dynamics of groups and teams.
In: A. Werner (ed). Organisation Behaviour. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Robbins, S.P. and Judge, T.A., 2009. Organizational behaviour. 13th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Pearson Prentice Hall.
Serrat, O., 2009. Distributing leadership. Knowledge
Solutions. Asian Development Bank.
Strauss, K., Griffin, M.A. and Rafferty, A.E., 2008. Proactivity Directed Toward the Team and Organization:
the Role of Leadership, Commitment and Role-breadth Self-efficacy. British Journal of Management, 20,
279-291

Suggested websites/links
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kj9hw0ngPJU
http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/nli0531.pdf

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