Nano Energy 77 (2020) 105303

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Nano Energy
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/nanoen

Wearable triboelectric nanogenerators for biomechanical

energy harvesting☆
Yongjiu Zou, Vidhur Raveendran, Jun Chen *
Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: With compelling features of flexibility, conformability, and user friendliness, wearable bioelectronics have un­
Triboelectric nanogenerators dergone tremendous development on account of miniaturization and multifunction advancements which could
Electricity generation cater to the development trend of Internet of Things (IoT) and fifth-generation wireless technology. However,
Wearable bioelectronics
powering wearable bioelectronics sustainably and pervasively is beyond the capability of traditional power
Internet of things
supply systems and remains a challenge and highly desired. By using the coupling effect of contact electrification
and electrostatic induction, triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) were demonstrated to efficiently convert
irregular and low-frequency biomechanical energy from human body movements into electrical energy for the
sustainable powering of wearable bioelectronics. In this article, the latest representative achievements of
wearable TENGs for electricity generation are comprehensively reviewed with the order of the accessible
biomechanical energy on the human body from head to feet. This review not only covers the fundamental
working mechanism, rational structural design, selection of the tribo-materials, and fabrication process of
wearable TENGs, but also investigates the movement patterns and characteristics of each part of the body, as well
as its feasibility and convenience for electricity generation. Finally, perspectives and challenges regarding
wearable TENGs at present are discussed.

1. Introduction
With the rapid development of advanced electronics/materials and
manufacturing [1–5], a variety of wearable smart electronics are being
increasingly attractive to the public [6–9]. Sports bracelets [10,11],
smart watches [12–14], eyeglasses [15,16], shoes [17,18] and other
wearable electronics [19–22] have entered people’s lives, playing an
exponentially significant role in our daily life. Wearable bioelectronics
are also developing towards miniaturization [23–25], lightweight
[26–29], flexibility [30–34], stretchability [35–38], biocompatibility
[39–44], and intelligence [45–47], which means they need a portable
and pervasive energy solution [48–51]. However, one of the major
challenges facing the development of wearable bioelectronics is that the
traditional power supply mode has limited battery lifetime and requires
cyclical recharging or battery replacements, which notably results in too
much inconvenience and maintenance consumption, especially in the
case with large amounts of distributed electronics [52–57].
Additionally, most of the battery systems are built with toxic chemicals,
which could introduce possible environmental risks. Therefore, these
electronics are in urgent need of sustainable, pervasive, and environ­
mentally friendly energy solutions [58–64].
A number of progressive techniques for extracting energy from the
ambient environment have been demonstrated, including photovoltaic
[65–70], thermoelectric [71–74], pyroelectric [75–78], piezoelectric
[79–84], and triboelectric effects [85–90]. Compared to solar energy or
thermal energy, mechanical energy is accessible at any time and place,
independent of environment and weather [41,91–96]. Our body con­
tains plenty of mechanical energy during normal daily activities, such as
walking [97–101], running [102–104], bending [24,105–107], pulling
[86,108,109], and many other actions [64,110–116]. The available
energy associated with biomechanical motions can be up to 67 W. By
harvesting various forms of biomechanical energy from the human body
and its surroundings, it is possible to create a pervasive, environmentally
friendly, and sustainable energy solution for wearable bioelectronics in

☆
This review paper presents the recent progress of the TENG based wearable electricity generation. The body sites hold different structural features, in this review
paper, we systematically reviewed the TENG based wearable energy harvesting with the consideration of movement patterns and characteristics of each body part.
Challenges and problems for wearable triboelectric nanogenerators on each body part are discussed to advance the field development.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jun.chen@ucla.edu (J. Chen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2020.105303
Received 21 June 2020; Received in revised form 1 August 2020; Accepted 15 August 2020
Available online 20 August 2020
2211-2855/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Zou et al.
the era of Internet of Things [92,117–122].
Recently, the triboelectric nanogenerator, a fundamentally state-of-
the-art mechanical energy-harvesting technology, was invented by
Wang’s group in 2012 based on the conjunction of triboelectrification
and electrostatic induction, which has been demonstrated to harvest
biomechanical energy with a wide range of frequency distribution [50,
123–128]. The TENG has shown a collection of excellent merits such as
low cost, light weight, simple structure, biocompatibility, wide-range of
materials choices [129–131], and large adaptability for sound wave
energy harvesting [132–137], wind energy harvesting [138–144], blue
energy harvesting [145–150], and vibration energy harvesting [59,
151–158]. A majority of new and innovative research indicates that it
can also be flexible [159–165], stretchable [108,166–171],
humidity-proof [172–177], shape-adaptive [178–183], and washable
[184–190]. With these compelling features, wearable triboelectric
nanogenerators have been developed over the past 8 years to generate
electricity from almost every part of our human body, as summarized
and shown in Fig. 1.
To give a comprehensive and systematic review of wearable TENGs
for on-body electricity generation for the first time, we first display the
triboelectric materials selection and the fundamental working principle.
Subsequently, a great emphasis is placed on the recent progress in
practical applications for each wearable position on our bodies.
Furthermore, perspectives and challenges for future development of
wearable TENGs research are presented. We expect that this review will
greatly promote the development of wearable TENGs for on-body elec­
tricity generation and shed some light on providing a pervasive and
Fig. 1. Wearable TENGs harvesting various biomechanical energy as sustain­
able power sources. The Figures (clockwise from bottom): Reproduced with
permission [191]. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH. Reproduced with permission
[192]. Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry. Reproduced with permis­
sion [193]. Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH. Reproduced with permission [194].
Copyright 2019, Elsevier. Reproduced with permission [195]. Copyright 2018,
Elsevier. Reproduced with permission [196]. Copyright 2017, American Asso­
ciation for the Advancement of Science. Reproduced with permission [197].
Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society. Reproduced with permission
[198]. Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH. Reproduced with permission [179].
Copyright 2016, American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Reproduced with permission [199]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. Reproduced with
permission [92]. Copyright 2015, Springer Nature. Reproduced with permission
[193]. Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH.
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Nano Energy 77 (2020) 105303
sustainable energy solution to the wearable bioelectronic systems in the
upcoming era of the Internet of Things.
2. Fundamental working principle
The triboelectric effect is often seen as negative or even hazardous in
our daily life, because it can not only be annoying but also may give rise
to a fire or dust absorption [200–204]. However, TENG can take
advantage of this unwanted phenomenon to convert ubiquitous but
usually wasted biomechanical motions into electricity [97,205–208].
Triboelectrification results from the physical contact between two dis­
similar materials with different electron affinity. TENGs are made from a
very wide range of materials, from natural materials (silk, wool, cotton)
to synthetic materials (peptide, polyamide, polyester, poly­
dimethylsiloxane, polyvinylchloride, polytetrafluoroethylene), and
from commonly-used metals (aluminum, copper, iron) to semi­
conductors(SiO2, TiO2, silicon). Many of them are biocompatible,
biodegradable, and even bioabsorbable, as listed in Fig. 2. Among them,
metal and nylon are commonly electron positive, while silicone rubber
and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) are usually electron negative
[209–215]. The surface of the material with the higher ability to attract
electrons will become negatively charged, while the other surface will
become positively charged. These static charges are non-mobile and can
remain on the surface for a long period of time. When the two materials
separate, the static charges in the interfacial region are also separated,
which will induce an electrical potential difference between electrodes,
driving the electrons to flow back and forth in the external circuit to
maintain electrostatic equilibrium [123,125,216–220]. Over the past 8
years, the fundamental working modes of TENGs have been systemati­
cally developed, including vertical contact-separation mode [221],
lateral sliding mode [222], single-electrode mode [223], and free­
standing triboelectric-layer mode [224], depending on the structure and
relative motion of the materials.
3. Biomechanical energy harvesting
Recently, tremendous efforts have been made in developing wear­
able TENGs that can be placed on the human body or integrated into
clothes and accessories for harvesting energy from movements such as
walking, running, jumping, bending, breathing, eye blinking, and even
pulse waves. The biomechanical movements of various body parts
possess their own characteristics and contain accessible energy from
Fig. 2. Diverse material choices for wearable TENGs. The TENGs are made
from a very wide range of materials, including natural materials, synthetic
materials, commonly-used metals, and semiconductors.
Y. Zou et al. Nano Energy 77 (2020) 105303

several to tens of watts, as summarized in Table 1 [225–228]. To develop working in the single-electrode mode (Fig. 3a). Two acrylic sheets, two
a wearable TENG, soft, lightweight, and biocompatible materials are screws, and two springs were assembled as a small fixator (Fig. 3a1) to
preferable. The structural design is another parameter that needs to be fix the ms-TENG. Fig. 3a2 shows that the multilayered ms-TENG was
considered. The design of a TENG should conform to the characteristics supported by a thin layer of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in a
and movement mode of a specific part of the human body. With this tadpole-like shape, consisting of a fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP)
concern, this review article is organized according to the human body thin film as one electrification layer laminated onto the PET substrate
structure from head to foot for wearable biomechanical energy and coated with indium tin oxide (ITO) as the back electrode, and the
harvesting. natural latex on top as the other electrification layer which will make
contact with the skin near the eyes. In addition, there is an acrylic thin
annulus as a spacer between the natural latex film and the FEP layer to
3.1. Head and neck realize a contact-separation procedure. As shown in Fig. 3a2, aligned
polymer nanowires were produced onto the FEP surface for enhanced
Accessible biomechanical energy from the human head and neck is contact with the natural latex. When the eye is blinking, it causes peri­
mainly in the forms of head-shaking, nodding, blinking, chewing, and odic contact and separation between the FEP thin film and natural latex,
neck artery pulsation [196–198,229–231]. The amplitude and fre­ generating alternating current. The generated electricity can also act as
quency of these biomechanical motions are relatively small. The limited a switching signal to control a lamp, as shown in Fig. 3b.
energy input leads to a relatively small electricity generation. Wearable energy harvesting can also be performed from the
To begin with, a wearable TENG triggered by eye motion that was biomechanical movements in a human neck. Yang et al. proposed a bi­
used for mechnosensational communication system (ms-TENG) was onic membrane-based TENG working in the single-electrode mode that
demonstrated [196], which was mounted on a pair of ordinary glasses is lightweight, flexible, and easy to fabricate [198]. As illustrated in
Fig. 3c, the multilayered bionic membrane-based TENG is made up of
Table 1 PTFE, nylon, PET, and indium tin oxide (ITO). The PTFE and nylon acted
Features of biomechanical energy in each body part and its utilization via as two triboelectrification layers, and the ITO was chosen as the elec­
TENGs. trode layer. The PET layer at the bottom was used as a substrate. Two
Body Motion Motion Features TENG Design Power circular acoustic holes with diameters of 0.5 mm were punched through
Parts Patterns [W] the layers of PET, ITO, and nylon to reduce the air damping. Fig. 3d
Eye Blinking Low frequency Lightweight, thin, – shows a photograph of an as-fabricated flexible and transparent bionic
and tiny soft, and skin- membrane-based TENG. To enhance the triboelectrification, nanowires
amplitude friendly were made on the surface of the PTFE layer (Fig. 3e). As for the working
Neck Carotid pulse Low frequency Soft, breathable, –
beating, and small flexible and skin-
mechanism, the electricity generation results from contact and separa­
reversing and amplitude friendly tion between the nylon and PTFE in response to the neck artery vibra­
bending tion. Fig. 3f exhibits a real-time voltage output when the bionic
Chest Breathing and High frequency Comfortable, – membrane based TENG was placed over the carotid arteries of a
heartbeat and small flexible and
30-year-old man. The inset is an enlarged view of one cardiac cycle,
amplitude breathable
Elbow Bending High frequency, Soft, stretchable, 2.1 where the open circuit voltage (VOC) can reach about 6 V.
large bending flexible and Head vibrations during human walking can also be harnessed to
moment and large breathable generate electricity. Jin et al. developed an energy harvesting helmet to
amplitude convert head vibrations into electricity [197]. The energy harvesting
Wrist Bending High frequency, Flexible,
helmet used the polymer materials as the framework, as illustrated in
–
small bending stretchable,
moment and small bendable and Fig. 3g. It has a multilayered structure with aluminum and PTFE as the
amplitude waterproof triboelectric layers. The wavy-like Al-Kapton-Al film was sandwiched
Finger Bending High frequency, Soft, flexible, 226-406 between two PTFE thin films, allowing this double-deck structure to
small bending stretchable, and (×
form 4 TENGs. The head vibration will induce a periodic contact area
moment and small breathable 10− 3)
amplitude change between the triboelectric layers and generate electricity. Fig. 3h
Waist Bending and High frequency, Comfortable, 38 shows a total of 1000 LEDs connected in series lighting up simulta­
breathing large bending flexible and strong neously when the TENGs were anchored onto a vibration frequency of
moment and small mechanical 22 Hz via a vibrostand. The developed energy harvesting helmet can
amplitude strength
provide explorers, disaster-relief workers, as well as miners under well
Knee Bending High frequency, Soft, stretchable, 36.4
large bending flexible and with a wearable and sustainable power source.
moment and large breathable In addition to the eyes, neck, and helmet, wearable TENGs have also
amplitude been very creatively applied to the ears and face masks to generate
Ankle Bending High frequency, Soft, stretchable, 66.8
electricity. On the ears, a thin film-based TENG was proposed to convert
large bending flexible and
moment and large breathable ear-received sound waves into electricity [229]. As for masks, the
amplitude TENG-based face masks could also convert breathing motions into static
Feet Walking High frequency Anti-sweat, anti- 2–20 charges and electricity, which could remove the coarse and fine par­
and small wear and strong ticulates by respiration in high efficiency [230,231]. The accessible
amplitude mechanical
biomechanical energy in the human head and neck is very limited,
strength
which leads to less electricity generation compared to energy harvesting
This review paper presents the recent progress of the TENG based wearable from other body parts. The design requirements for this kind of TENG
electricity generation. The body sites have different structural features, in this should meet at least the following two criteria. Firstly, the materials
review paper, we for the first time systematic review the TENG-based wearable
should be skin-friendly, soft, and breathable. Secondly, the whole
energy harvesting with the consideration of movement patterns and character­
structure of the device must be relatively lightweight and flexible. The
istics of each body part. This review paper also discussed the feasibility and
convenience of wearable electricity generation via triboelectric nanogenerators next step for TENGs placed on the head should include an attempt to
as a sustainable and pervasive energy solution for the Internet of things. integrate with other energy devices that can harness the heat emitted by
Triboelectric nanogenerators, electricity generation, wearable bioelectronics, the human body, solar energy, wind energy, and other natural energy in
Internet of things. an ingenious way to boost the final power output for a wider range of

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Y. Zou et al. Nano Energy 77 (2020) 105303

Fig. 3. Wearable TENGs for energy harvesting from human head and neck. (a) Schematic structure of a pair of ordinary glasses mounted with an msTENG. (a1)
Structure of the fixing device for convenient adjustment. (a2) Schematic diagram of the msTENG. Inset: An SEM image of FEP nanowires. Scale bar, 5 mm. (b)
Demonstration of the controlling of a table lamp. Reproduced with permission [196]. Copyright 2017, American Association for the Advancement of Science. (c)
Structural design of the bionic membrane based TENG. (d) Photograph of an as-fabricated flexible and transparent bionic membrane based TENG. Scale bar, 1 cm. (e)
A SEM image of surface-etched PTFE nanowires. Scale bar, 1 μm. (f) The real-time voltage outputs when the bionic membrane based TENG is placed over the carotid
arteries of a 30-year-old man. The inset is an enlarged view of one cycle. Reproduced with permission [198]. Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH. (g) Structure design of the
energy harvesting helmet. (h) Photograph showing 1000 LEDs connected in series were lighting up simultaneously by the energy harvesting helmet. Reproduced with
permission [197]. Copyright 2016, American Chemical Society.

practical applications.
3.2. Chest
To harvest the biomechanical energy around the human chest,
wearable TENGs are usually designed in the form of textiles with better
wearing comfort [190,195,232–234]. The movement pattern of the
chest is either regular expansion and contraction with breathing, or
slight vibration with the beating of the heart. Therefore, the amplitude
of movement pattern is very small, and the frequency is relatively high
and stable.
Ning et al. proposed a washable textile-structured TENG (TS-TENG)
based on a nanofibrous PTFE polymer with high hydrophobicity,
working in the single-electrode mode [235]. The TS-TENG is quickly and
easily washed in water. Fig. 4a schematically shows the woven textile
structure of TS-TENG. The TS-TENG was composed of many PTFE/Cu
strips (the Cu foil strip was tightly surrounded by the PTFE strip) woven
into a piece of plain textile structure through a shuttle-flying process.
Taking the daily clothes as the substrate, the TS-TENG could effectively
convert biomechanical energy into electricity by the friction within the
clothes. Fig. 4b illustrates the output voltage of the TS-TENG (10 cm ×
12 cm) on a lab coat. The peak VOC was about 1050 V. Fig. 4c demon­
strates that 54 commercial green LEDs were illuminated with normal
body movement.
As for working in the contact-separation mode, a washable func­
tional fiber TENG (F-TENG) with a sheathcore structure was developed
[236]. The F-TENG is composed of an ultrathin hollow silicone fiber as
an outer sheath and an inner core of polyester yarn with the metal inside
as the electrode. As shown in Fig. 4d, the F-TENG with a serpentine
structure was integrated with a black textile substrate, forming a sensing
unit which can harness external pressure to generate electricity. The
working mechanism depends on the contact of silicone rubber and
polyester when they are exposed to external pressure, and the separation
when the pressure disappears. When a volunteer was lying on his left
side with the sensing unit under his chest region, the respiratory and
heartbeat all can be used to stimulate F-TENG to produce electrical
signals of 0.6 V and 0.05 V, respectively (Fig. 4e). Many of these sensing
units come together to form an ultra-soft smart textile, which can judge
the sleeping position based on the electrical signals generated by
different units. Additionally, Fig. 4f demonstrated the corresponding
voltage signals, when the volunteer was successively in different
breathing conditions including normal breathing, holding breath, taking
a deep breath, and eventually returning to normal breathing. The
F-TENG produces less power, but the electrical signals it produces are
more suitable for real-time physiological monitoring and healthcare
during sleep. Furthermore, a milk-based paper TENG working in the
contact-separation mode was also creatively put forward [237]. The
approximate values of short-circuit current (ISC), VOC, and output power
density could reach 93 μA, 392 V, and 583.75 μW/cm2, respectively.
In addition, a textile TENG with a freestanding working mode [190]
and some other TENG clothes with multiple working modes [195,233,
234] were also demonstrated to harvest biomechanical energy around
the chest during human movement. Since the TENGs were placed
around the chest, it is important to develop new materials that are soft,
breathable and comfortable for wearing. In the meanwhile, with a large
area of curved surface, the biomechanical motions around the human
chest vary from positions to positions. In order to improve the efficiency
of biomechanical energy harvesting from the chest area, soft TENG ar­
rays can be employed with individual units that could fully harness the
localized chest biomechanical motions.

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Y. Zou et al. Nano Energy 77 (2020) 105303

Fig. 4. Wearable TENGs for energy harvesting from human chest. (a) Schematic diagram of the TS-TENG with a woven textile structure. (b) Output voltage of the TS-
TENG (10 cm × 12 cm) on a lab coat when operated by swinging arms. (c) A wearable night running light including 54 commercial green LEDs and an armband was
connected to the TS-TENG, which was lit up by the TS-TENG when the person swings his arm. Reproduced with permission [235]. Copyright 2018, Royal Society of
Chemistry. (d) Schematic illustration of a sensing unit, which was fabricated by weaving a washable functional fiber into a black textile substrate with serpentine
structure. (e) The real-time subtle physiological signal monitoring during sleep in supine position (f) Raw physiological signal recorded with three different breath
conditions including: normal breath, holding breath, and deep breath. Reproduced with permission [236]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.

3.3. Arm
With larger relative mobility, including elbow bending, arm expan­
sion and contraction, finger bending, and hand slapping, the human arm
contains biomechanical energy up to 2.1 W. The TENGs are mainly worn
on the elbow, wrist, and fingers of the arm. The arm is a body part that
contains a large amount of biomechanical energy with a wide range of
frequency and amplitude distribution. Energy harvesting from the arm
area holds a collection of compelling features, including high output
power, simple device structural design, easy implementation, and so on.
3.3.1. Elbow
The movement of the arm must cause elbow bending, which is an
ideal biomechanical energy source for on-body electricity generation
[27,238–242]. TENGs placed on the armbar can be divided into two
categories, according to the form of external force applied. One is elbow
bending while the other is hand flapping. Firstly, Zhou et al. developed a
woven-structured TENG (W-TENG) that is flexible, washable, breath­
able, and could move freely without any constraint to harvest energy
from periodic elbow bending [90]. This W-TENG consists of nylon fabric
and polyester fabric as positive and negative triboelectric materials,
respectively, with conductive silver fiber fabric as the electrode, as
shown in Fig. 5a. Both of the triboelectric materials surround the elec­
trodes to form two different fabric straps, which were fabricated into a
single fabric via plain weaving. There are two basic working modes of
the W-TENG: deformation and non-deformation mode. The deformation
mode is based on the alternating change of contact area caused by
deformation when the W-TENG is in contact with the external object.
However, the non-deformation mode relies on the alternating contact
and separation of the W-TENG and the external object to generate
electrical energy. As shown in Fig. 5b, this W-TENG was placed onto a
coat at the elbow in order to harvest energy from the movement of arm
joints. Fig. 5c shows an alternating current generated by bending the
arm, and the maximum current is about 0.75 μA. Another highly
stretchable, shape-adaptive TENG (saTENG) was also developed to
harvest energy from the human arm. It contains conductive liquid in a
polymer cover, which can effectively harvest biomechanical energy in
various forms [179]. As schematically shown in Fig. 5d, the saTENG was
assembled with a conductive liquid electrode inside and a rubber layer
outside with nanorod structures on the surface. Due to its high flexi­
bility, the saTENG can be stretched out up to 300% and still maintains
high performance. The conductive liquid inside the soft rubber can
consist of liquid metal, a conductive solution, or even water. Since water
and sodium chloride (NaCl) solution are low cost and

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Y. Zou et al. Nano Energy 77 (2020) 105303

Fig. 5. Wearable TENGs for energy harvesting from human elbows. (a) Schematic diagram illustrating the fabricating process of a W-TENG. (b) The W-TENG
harvesting energy from arm joints. (c) The generated current. Reproduced with permission [90]. Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society. (d) Schematic diagram
of the saTENG unit. The zoom-in illustration shows the nanostructured rubber surface. (e) The saTENG worn on the upper arm. (f) Response of the saTENG to
different bending angles. Reproduced with permission [179]. Copyright 2016, American Association for the Advancement of Science. (g) Photographs of the
textile-like LM-TENG fabricated on the clothes. (h) Powering several LEDs by harvesting biomechanical energy from hand patting. Scale bars, 4 cm. Reproduced with
permission [244]. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society.

environment-friendly, they are chosen as the electrode in this work. The
stretchable saTENG generates electricity by alternating contact with
external objects. It also has a wide range of applications, which can not
only endure a surface of any shape but also adapt movable objects. A
bracelet-like saTENG was worn around the upper arm, as shown in
Fig. 5e, and it is not only capable of generating a current of about 10 nA,
but also could detect the elbow bending angle, as shown in Fig. 5f.
Similarly, a liquid-polymer tubular TENG (L-P TENG) based on liquid­
–solid contact electrification was also put forward by Yuan et al. [243].
By sticking it onto the arm, the L-P TENG will generate electricity while
playing badminton. Additionally, wearable TENG-based electronic skin
and stretchable elastic TENGs [27,238,239] can also extract external
biomechanical energy into electricity from joint motion and
three-dimensional muscle deformation.
Biomechanical energy from hand flapping can also be harnessed by
wearable TENGs placed on the armbar. Yang et al. proposed a liquid
metal-based TENG (LM-TENG) which exhibits outstanding performance
and stability under complex deformations [244]. This LM-TENG uses
silicone rubber as the triboelectric and packaging layers and galinstan as
the stretchable electrode that is coated with a natural gallium oxide
layer to effectively prevent further oxidization and permeation into
silicone rubber. When it comes into alternating contact and separation
with the skin, it will generate electricity as a single-electrode mode
TENG, where human skin is regarded as a triboelectric layer. For the
purpose of effectively harnessing complicated body deformations, a
fiber-based textile-like LM-TENG is designed, as shown in Fig. 5g, which
also can be sewn onto the sleeve of cloths to light up several LEDs in
series by hand patting (Fig. 5h). Moreover, another stretchable and
transparent TENG was also developed to power an electronic watch by
hand patting [240].
3.3.2. Wrist
TENGs worn on the wrist are usually soft, flexible, and deformable
devices that constantly generate electricity by bending or slapping with
hands [105,245–248]. For biomechanical energy harvesting from
human wrists, the structural design of the wearable TENG can be divided
into two types: a multilayer structure and a stretchable material wrap­
ped electrode structure. One of the typical multilayer structure designs is
a flexible and lightweight TENG (NF-TENG) with excellent properties of
high output, long-term stability and resistance to destruction [26].
Fig. 6a exhibits the fabrication process of the NF-TENG, which consists
of an FEP film and a nickel conductive mesh welded together by ultra­
sonic technique, working in the contact–separation mode. Fig. 6b dis­
plays the optical picture of the NF-TENG with an arched shape and
lightweight structure. The working mechanism of the NF-TENG is that
the FEP and nickel mesh are alternately contacted and separated by
external forces to generate electricity. Fig. 6c shows the photograph of
patting the NF-TENG by hand, resulting in controlling the on/off state of
a bulb. The NF-TENG has a promising prospect in smart home appliances
and wearable portable electronics.
Research on the stretchable material wrapped electrode structure is
becoming more and more popular due to its softness [245,246],
compatibility, and water resistance [247,250]. Guo et al. proposed an
ultra-stretchable and shape-adaptive silicone rubber TENG (SR-TENG),
with the merits of being stretchable, twistable, and bendable [178].
Fig. 6d displays the structure of the shape-adaptive SR-TENG.
Ultra-stretchable silicon rubber was chosen as the triboelectric material
and silver nanowire (Ag NWs) networks acted as the conductive elec­
trode due to their excellent conductivity and ultra-high stretchability.
The inset is a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of the Ag NWs
networks formed on the silicon rubber substrate. The Ag NWs electrode
presents a stable electrical conductivity in bending, stretching, and
twisting situations (Fig. 6e). Fig. 6f exhibits a curve of the packaged

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Fig. 6. Wearable TENGs for energy harvesting from huam wrists. (a) An illustration of the NF-TENG. (b) An photograph of the NF-TENG. (c) The electrical signals
produced by the NF-TENG control the bulb. Reproduced with permission [26]. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. (d) Structural scheme of the SR-TENG.
(e) Dependence of resistance of the Ag NW based electrode under various strain (0–100%), with the photographs of the SR-TENG under various mechanical de­
formations, stretching, twisting, and bending (scale bar 5 cm) below. (f) Voltage output of the all-in-one shape-adaptive self-charging power package connected to an
electric watch under various operating modes, including, discharging mode, sustainable mode, and charging mode. Reproduced with permission [178]. Copyright
2016, American Chemical Society. (g) Schematic diagram of the FST-TENG. (h) Qsc of the TENG fabric with knitting patterns of 1 × 1, 2 × 2, and 3 × 3 nets. (i) VOC of
the FST–TENG-based bracelet at the motion frequency of 2 Hz. Inset shows the photograph of 10 green LEDs lighted up by hand tapping. Reproduced with permission
[249]. Copyright 2019, Springer Nature.

SR-TENG connected to an electric watch under various operating modes.
With hand patting, the watch can be sustainably powered. Furthermore,
a waterproof and stretchable TENG with encapsulation is proposed to
harvest energy from a wrist even if it is under water [250]. As for the
woven TENG wearing on wrist, Xie et al. reported a fiber-shaped TENG
(FST-TENG), which has great stability, stretchability, and even tailor­
ability [249]. For a single FST–TENG with 6 cm in length and 3 mm in
diameter, the VOC can reach up to 59.7 V. The structural composition of
the FST–TENG is shown in Fig. 6g. Due to the outstanding features such
as softness, stretchability and strong ability to acquire electrons, silicone
rubber was employed as both the triboelectric material and the pack­
aging substrate. A spiral-shaped steel wire was selected as the electrode
inside the silicone rubber connected to the ground. The whole fiber is a
single-electrode mode TENG. The skin on a wrist is another triboelectric
material for electricity generation. To improve the wearing comfort, a
fabric-based FST–TENG was designed and knitted into clothes through
three knitting patterns of 1 × 1, 2 × 2, and 3 × 3 type, and the 3 × 3 type
showing the maximum short-circuit current (QSC) due to a larger contact
area (Fig. 6h). Fig. 6i displays that the FST–TENG can also be knitted
into a bracelet worn on the wrist to deliver a VOC of 73 V and light up 10
LEDs in series with hand tapping. In addition, the polypyrrole
(PPy)-coated cotton textile was also used to design the TENG, to effi­
ciently convert the biomechanical energy from wrist into electricity via a
contact/separation cycle with the skin [251].
Not only can the TENG-based bracelet harvest biomechanical energy
in conjunction with solar power [248] and super capacitors [247], it can
also monitor the bending angle of the wrist [105,250] and the pulse of
the human body [187,246,252–254]. Improving the wearing comfort is
becoming more and more important for the TENG based wearable
mechanical-to-electrical conversion, and various stretchable/soft ma­
terials are widely involved as triboelectric materials and package ma­
terials to prevent metal electrode rigidity and discomfort, improving the
softness, comfortability, water resistance towards practical applications.
3.3.3. Fingers
Finger movements are commonplace in daily life. We need to use
fingers to type on keyboards, play the piano, or even communicate with
hand gestures. A number of studies have shown that TENGs worn on
fingers can effectively convert finger bending motion into electricity for
both energy and sensing purposes [255–263]. To harvest energy from
finger motion, a bio-inspired and stretchable TENG (bio-inspired TENG)
is demonstrated by Wang and his coworkers [264]. Fig. 7a displays the

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Y. Zou et al. Nano Energy 77 (2020) 105303

Fig. 7. Wearable TENGs for energy harvesting from human fingers. (a) Schematic diagrams showing the structure of a basic TENG unit cell, with a SEM image
showing the micro/nano structures on the silicone rubber surface. (b) Photograph showing LEDs powered by the TENG finger tips from tapping motion. Reproduced
with permission [264]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier. (c) Schematic diagram of the KT-TENG. (d) A photograph showing the inner structure of the KT-TENG. (e) Five
KT-TENGs attached onto the human fingers to monitor the finger motion and different gestures in real-time. Reproduced with permission [265]. Copyright 2017,
Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. (f) Schematic diagram showing the detailed structure of the s-TENG. Outputs of the s-TENGs when the hand makes the
(g) “OK” gesture and (h) “victory” gesture. Reproduced with permission [192]. Copyright 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry.

structure of a basic bio-inspired TENG unit cell, which is composed of
silicone rubber outside as the encapsulation and triboelectric layer, and
physiological saline inside as the electrode. It is biocompatible, trans­
parent, environmentally friendly, and lightweight. To enhance the
effective contact area and output performance, nanostructures were
created on the surface of the silicone rubber layer, as the SEM image
shown in Fig. 7a. With a size of 12 mm × 18 mm × 800 μm (electrode
size: 10 mm × 14 mm × 300 m), the VOC of bio-inspired TENG can reach
about 57.0 V when triggered by vertical contact/separation motion. As
shown in Fig. 7b, the bio-inspired TENG can power 18 LEDs when the
fingers are moving in a typing motion. In addition, there are also TENGs
with multi-layered structures [259,262] and in textile forms [255,261]
that generate electricity with finger motions.
As for the multilayered structure, Wang et al. proposed a stretchable
and flexible TENG based on kinesio tapes (KT-TENG) with outstanding
characteristics of simple fabrication, superior stability, and conformable
contact with skin [265]. As shown in Fig. 7c, KT-TENG is made up of a
PET film and a Kapton film as the effective triboelectric layers coated
with the Ag back electrodes, all of which were sealed and packaged by
two kinesio tapes with good biocompatibility. Fig. 7d depicts the inner
structure of KT-TENG, indicating more excellent flexibility.
Nanorod-like structures were produced on the surface of the PET film to
boost the surface roughness. The working mechanism of the KT-TENG
depends on a relative lateral sliding back and forth between the PET
film and the Kapton film. To illustrate the practical application, the
KT-TENG was attached to human fingers, and was able to not only
generate electricity but also can monitor the motion of each finger and
different gestures in real-time (Fig. 7e). In addition, Chen et al. devel­
oped an ultrathin stretchable TENG(s-TENG) with coplanar electrode
[192]. The structure of the three-layer s-TENG is depicted in Fig. 7f. The
bottom substrate is a thin-film PDMS, and there are two pieces of PU
nanofibers coated with CNTs/AgNWs in parallel embedded into the
PDMS substrate as electrodes in the middle, one of which was coated
with micro-patterned PDMS as the triboelectric layer while the other one
is directly employed as another triboelectric layer. The s-TENG can
generate electricity from various modes, including contact/separation
with other objects and folding or unfolding of the s-TENG. Since the
micro-patterned PDMS and the CNTs/AgNWs have a huge gap in ability
to obtain electrons, it is easy to realize the contact/separation mode
upon contact with external objects together. The folding/unfolding
mode can be performed more easily. As shown in Fig. 7g and h, once the
hand makes a gesture like“OK” and “victory”, the fingers would bend
and the s-TENG would fold, resulting in both energy generation and
gesture recognition simultaneously.
In summary, there are a variety of ways to generate electricity from
arm movements. TENGs for energy harvesting from arm motions are

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Y. Zou et al. Nano Energy 77 (2020) 105303

often bent or stretched, so the materials selected in the design process
should be elastic and stretch-resistant, and the whole device should be
flexible to adapt to the irregular movement pattern of the arm. For
future research, a new type of structural design that can efficiently
harvest the energy of bending motion becomes more and more necessary
because it can not only be applied to the elbow, wrist and fingers with
different structural sizes, but also can bring these energy input together
to improve the overall output.
3.4. Waist
The available biomechanical energy from the human waist mainly
comes from abdomen expansion and contraction during breathing [172,
194,266,267]. The TENG, placed on the abdomen, is usually attached
onto a circular belt. The circumference of the abdomen periodically
changes during breathing, causing elastic deformation of the circular
belt. Since the respiration rate is stable and the abdominal circumfer­
ence does not vary excessively, TENG generates relatively small
amounts of electricity, but the electrical signals produced by the TENG
can continuously perform respiratory monitoring with a remarkable
signal to noise ratio.
Zhang et al. proposed a waist-wearable TENG(RS-TENG) based on a
lateral sliding mode, which can not only harvest energy from the vari­
ation of the abdominal circumference but also monitor respiratory rates
employing the generated electrical signals [268]. A schematic structure
of the bilayer belt equipped with a RS-TENG is shown in Fig. 8a. The
RS-TENG consists of a PTFE film and a nylon film, and all of them were
coated with copper foil to serve as conductive electrodes. The breathing
motion will cause the two triboelectric layers to slide against each other,
therefore effectively generating electricity. As shown in Fig. 8b, a
RS-TENG is worn on a person’s abdomen. During one breathing cycle,
the real-time generated electrical signals could act as both a power
source and a self-powered sensor to measure respiratory rates accurately
(Fig. 8c). When the volunteer walked at a speed of 3 km/h, the output
voltage increased significantly due to increased breathing (Fig. 8d). In
addition, another TENG working in the contact-separation mode could
be integrated into an automotive seat belt and convert body motions into
electricity, performing strain measurements to continuously monitor
driving behavior to ensure safe driving [199].
Another form of wearable TENG for biomechanical energy harvest­
ing from the waist is a TENG in a belt shape that is made of elastic
material rather than a TENG fixed onto an elastic belt. Yi et al.
demonstrated a stretchable-rubber-based TENG(SR-TENG), which is a
promising approach as a wearable energy-harvesting method from the
human waist [269]. As shown in Fig. 8e, the SR-TENG working in the
single-electrode mode is composed of a layer of elastic rubber and a
layer of aluminum film which is not only a triboelectric material but also
an electrode. As shown in Fig. 8f, nanoporous structures were created on
the aluminum surface by an anodization method to enhance the effec­
tive contact area and the output performance. The changes of

Fig. 8. Wearable TENGs for energy harvesting from waist. (a) Schematic design of the RS-TENG. (b) Photograph of the TENG sensor worn on the waist for respiration
monitoring. (c) The correspondence between the output voltage signal and the processes of exhaling and inhaling in one breathing cycle. (d) The output voltage
generated when the volunteer walked at a speed of 3 km/h. Reproduced with permission [268]. Copyright 2019, Springer Nature. (e) Schematic description of the
SR-TENG with the rubber stretched outward. (f) A SEM image of the nanopores on the aluminum film. Scale bar, 100 nm. (g) Optical images of the device on the
abdomen during expiration and inspiration. (h) Voltage responses to the diaphragmatic breathing. Reproduced with permission [269]. Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH.

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Y. Zou et al. Nano Energy 77 (2020) 105303

triboelectric charge distribution and density between the rubber surface
and the aluminum surface during stretching will result in electricity
generation. Fig. 8g exhibits the SR-TENG on the abdomen during expi­
ration and inhalation, and the open-circuit voltage will change with the
diaphragmatic breathing (Fig. 8h).
In summary, with two different structural designs, the wearable
TENG in a belt form can effectively convert breathing motions into
electricity as both sustainable power sources and self-powered breathing
sensors. In addition to the above-mentioned belt based wearable TENGs,
other TENGs could also be placed under a body-hugging backpack
around the human waist that alternately generates electricity by striking
the top of the buttocks while walking [172,267]. Since humans breathe
all the time, the TENGs, which are worn against the waist, work in a
lateral sliding mode. Therefore, materials are required to hold me­
chanical durability and wear resistance. It also requires the whole device
to be flexible and stretchable. When considering the new structural
design and material selection, the materials that can improve the friction
effect also need to be discovered diligently, especially self-healing ma­
terials, which can not only improve the output performance, but also
extend the service life.
3.5. Leg
Human walking contains a lot of biomechanical energy. Thanks to
the movements patterns of knee bending and feet stepping, more and
more TENGs with various structure design are being developed. Because
of the relatively large amplitude and high frequency of leg movement, it
generally produces more electricity than energy harvesting from any
other part of the body. The following sections are described in detail
according to the knees, ankles and feet.
3.5.1. Knee and ankle
We need to walk every day, which actually contains a lot of available
but usually wasted biomechanical energy [234,270–275]. Depending on
placement positions, there are two categories of wearable TENGs for
energy harvesting from a human leg: knee and ankle. A TENG placed at
the knee relies on the bending of the knee during walking to generate
electricity. At first, Lai et al. demonstrated a new type of single
thread-based TENG. With the excellent merits of being sewable and
comfortable, it could be attached to clothes as wearable and stretchable
energy harvesters [193]. Fig. 9a displays the fabrication process of the
single thread-based TENG, which is composed of stainless-steel thread as
the conducting electrode and super-soft yet tough silicone rubber
wrapped outside as the triboelectric material. Then the thread TENG
was sewn on the elastic textile in a serpentine shape to form the
stretchable energy-harvesting textile (SEHT). The working principle of
the SEHT depends on the alternating contact and separation with human
skin which is regarded as the other triboelectric material to extract

Fig. 9. Wearable TENGs for energy harvesting from legs. (a) Schematic diagram for fabrication process of energy-harvesting thread and SEHT. (b) Simple schematic
illustration of working mechanism of single-thread-based TENG. (c) Photo demonstrating that SEHT powers up LEDs by harvesting energy from knee motions. (d) Isc
from knee motions. Reproduced with permission [193]. Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH. (e) Schematic diagram and working mechanism of the GO LS-TENG. (f)(g)
Output VOC and JSC of GO LS-TENG when contacting with clothes at contact frequency of 0.35–0.55 Hz, with knee bending and releasing. Reproduced with
permission [276]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier. (h) Picture showing only the Al electrode and electric wire used for the human-body-based triboelectric system. (i)
Schematic illustration of the working mechanism for the single electrode working mode. (j) Schematic illustration of the working mechanism for the independent
triboelectric system on the basis of the double-electrode mode. (k) Output voltages from the double-electrode mode system with electrodes attached to the
shoulder-ankle, shoulder-hip, hip-hip, shoulder-shoulder, hip-ankle, and ankle-ankle. Reproduced with permission [97]. Copyright 2019, Elsevier.

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Y. Zou et al. Nano Energy 77 (2020) 105303

human-motion energy, as shown in Fig. 9b. Fig. 9c shows that the SEHT
was worn on the knee to light several LEDs with knee bending motion,
and the maximum ISC can reach about 2 μA (Fig. 9d). Furthermore, Wu
et al. proposed a liquid single-electrode TENG based on graphene oxide
dispersion (GO LS-TENG) that had advantages of simple structure, high
output and sensitivity to mechanical deformation [276]. Fig. 9e depicts
the structure and working mechanism of the GO LS-TENG. The GO
dispersion was selected as the liquid conductive electrode and PDMS
film was chosen as the packaging and negative triboelectric material.
Other objects (such as human skin and clothes) were considered as the
other triboelectric material. Fig. 9f and g show that the GO LS-TENG was
worn on the knee, and a VOC of 12 V and a short-circuit current density
(JSC) of 0.27 mAm− 2 were delivered during the knee bending. The GO
LS-TENG can have a broad application as a sustainable and wearable
power source for on-body electronics. In addition to these, there are also
a number of multi-layered structural TENGs designed to harvest the
biomechanical energy from knee bending with the contact-separation
working mode [272,274].
In addition to energy harvesting from bending knees, ankles with
wearable TENG can also be used to generate electricity. One of the most
creative TENGs was only made up of pieces of aluminum foil and electric
wire for wearable energy harvesting. Instead of using the complexly
designed triboelectric materials, it can be easily attached to the human
body (Fig. 9h) [97]. Fig. 9i depicts the principle of this simple TENG. The
sole and surface of the ground were considered as the two triboelectric
layers, and the human body acted as a resistor with high resistance.
Once the foot is lifted, electrons will be driven from this lifting foot to
other parts of the body, therefore inducing positive charges on the Al
electrode due to electrostatic induction. This results in a current flow
from the surface of the ground to the Al electrode. Similarly, when the
foot is put down, the current will flow in the opposite direction. Due to
the uneven distribution of electrostatic induced charges on the human
body, placing Al electrodes in different parts of the body will definitely
generate potential difference and therefore current. As shown in Fig. 9j,
two Al electrodes are placed onto the ankles, which deliver a high output
voltage up to 70 V (Fig. 9k).
3.5.2. Feet
For wearable power generation, the TENG is the most commonly
discovered on the feet or shoes since feet can produce greater
compressive stress during walking with possible higher electric output
[31,92,99,100,102–104,109,173,207,277–282]. Depending on the
placement, wearable TENGs for biomechanical energy from feet can be
divided into two categories: one is placed inside the shoe, and the other
is placed outside the shoe.
3.5.2.1. TENGs on the outside of the shoes. At first, Wang et al. devel­
oped a TENG with an advanced structural design and was placed at the
bottom of the shoes [94]. Fig. 10a shows the structure of a tube-shaped
TENG, which is made up of a tube-shaped dielectric layer with a back
electrode outside and belt-like helix inside acting as a triboelectric layer
and electrode. The silicone rubber was selected as the encapsulation
material to possess remarkable flexibility and stretchability in multiple
dimensions. Silicone rubber, carbon black and carbon nanotubes (CNTs)
were mixed to fabricate the inner and output electrodes. Fig. 10b dis­
plays the TENG-tubes with a diameter of 2–3 mm woven into textiles,
and 40 tubes were assembled under a pair of shoes (Fig. 10c). The
working mechanism of the TENG-tube relies on the changes of contact

Fig. 10. Wearable TENGs for energy harvesting from feet. (a) Structure of the TENG-tubes. (b) Photograph showing TENG tubes in diameter of 2–3 mm woven into
textile. (c) Image of the ‘energy-shoe’. (d) An electronic watch is driven and (e) LIB in the self-charging power system is charged simultaneously by the ‘energy-shoe’
while walking. Reproduced with permission [94]. Copyright 2016, Springer Nature. (f) Diagram of the synthesis process. (g) Photograph of an as-prepared round PNC
(5 cm in diameter and 0.5 cm thick). The SEM inset shows the surface morphology. (h) Simplified diagrams that illustrate the electricity-generation process. (i)
Cycled ISC and corresponding status of a foot under walking. Reproduced with permission [284]. Copyright 2016, Wiley-VCH. (j) Schematic diagram of the fabri­
cation of the 3DP-TENGs and the hierarchical porous structure. (k) Voltage profile of a 22 μF capacitor being charged by the 3DP-TENG insole and powering the
electronic watch. Image of the self-charging system to power electronic watch (inset). (m) Photograph of an energy harvesting lighting shoe with a 3DP-TENG insole
inside (top) and the simultaneously lighting LEDs while the wearer stomped (bottom). Reproduced with permission [191]. Copyright 2018, Wiley-VCH.

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Y. Zou et al.
extent between the inner and outer dielectric when compressed and
released alternately. An electronic watch can be immediately and sus­
tainably powered (Fig. 10d) and a LIB can also be charged simulta­
neously (Fig. 10e) by walking with the tube-shaped TENG. There are
other ingenious designs that utilize the walking power from feet to
generate electricity [103,109,173,207]. In addition, a fire-retardant and
self-extinguishing triboelectric nanogenerator (FRTENG) placed under
the sole was also demonstrated to generate electricity and monitor the
safety of personnel working in fire hazard sites [283].
3.5.2.2. TENGs inside the shoes. Made of soft materials, TENGs can also
be placed inside shoes to harvest the energy from human walking.
Firstly, the insoles can be regarded as the substrate, and one of the
simplest designs is directly developing TENGs on the shoe insoles [233,
271,273,278,282,284]. Fan et al. proposed a stretchable porous nano­
composite (PNC) based on a hybrid of a PDMS matrix and a multiwalled
CNTs network for harvesting energy from biomechanical motions [284].
Fig. 10f illustrates the fabrication process of PNC. Fig. 10g depicts the
photograph of an as-prepared round PNC with a diameter of 5 cm and a
thickness of 0.5 cm. The inset is an SEM image showing its surface
morphology. The working mechanism is that the PDMS matrix and CNTs
network can be effectively and alternately contacted and separated in
the porous structure generated by NaCl solution, when being com­
pressed and released, as shown in Fig. 10h. Moreover, Fig. 10i shows
that the current output of the shoe insole varies with the force and di­
rection from the human walking. TENGs can also be embedded inside
commercial insoles [99,100,104,279,285] to avoid direct contact be­
tween perspiration and human feet.
The most ingenious design is to make a TENG directly into an insole
[31,191,280,286–289]. Chen et al. demonstrated a 3D-printed TENG
(3DP-TENG), with different 3D shapes for different application scenarios
[191]. The fabrication process of the 3DP-TENG is shown in Fig. 10j. The
3DP-TENG is composed of poly (glycerol sebacate) (PGS) as one of the
triboelectric materials, and CNTs as the other triboelectric material and
electrode. Salt particles are added to the PGS to obtain a hierarchical
porous structure after salt leaching. To prove its practicality, Fig. 10k
shows the voltage output of a 22 μF capacitor being charged by the
3DP-TENG insole. In addition, an energy harvesting lighting shoe was
developed to light up LEDs via stomping through 3DP-TENG insole in­
side (Fig. 10m).
In addition, TENGs can also be embedded inside the soles [92,102,
277,281,290] to avoid direct contact with moisture produced by the
environment and human feet. Tremendous research is being carried out
on energy generation by knees, ankles, and feet, mainly because it is
easy and convenient to harvest energy during daily walking. From the
above analysis, it can be seen that the main source of biomechanical
energy from the legs are bending knees and the feet pressure. Therefore,
for knees bending, placing a wearable, soft TENG on the kneecap can not
only keep the knee warm and prevent strain, but also convert the knee
bending motions into electricity, which could act as a sustainable power
supply for on-body electronic devices during exercise. As the feet pres­
sure during walking is not uniformly distributed, it will be more efficient
if we can design and apply the TENG with the consideration of the feet
pressure distribution for the electricity generation. It is also necessary to
develop new structural designs and materials with the capabilities of
anti-sweat, anti-wear, and strong mechanical strength to make the most
efficient use of the power generation from feet stepping. In addition to
the biomechanical energy harvesting, the smart shoe can also harvest
energy from the body heat and ambient solar radiation for more energy
output.
4. Summary and perspective
As the world marches into the era of Internet of Things, powering the
billions of distributed devices in the network is beyond the capability of
12
Nano Energy 77 (2020) 105303
traditional central power supply systems. It is time to develop a perva­
sive energy solution for smart and versatile wearable bioelectronics.
Since the invention of the TENG in 2012, it has undergone tremendous
development in harvesting biomechanical energy to sustainably power
wearable electronics. The human body contains biomechanical energy
in various forms. In this review article, the latest achievements of TENGs
for wearable power generation from the human body were systemati­
cally summarized. To fit the different body part configurations, different
wearable TENGs are designed and optimized to achieve a high energy
conversion efficiency, as highlighted in the preceding sections (Fig. 11).
For future field development, research directions can be implemented in
the following aspects:
Lower the cost. The advanced design requires expensive materials
and a complex fabrication process, which will prevent its practicability
of the TENG from being widely adopted. Therefore, it is necessary to first
explore natural and economically available materials for wearable
TENGs. Secondly, more efficient structural designs are still needed to
develop high-performance TENGs that are suitable for large-scale
fabrication, which is both energy-saving and environmentally friendly.
Improve the wearability. Most wearable TENGs need to be in
contact with our skin for a long time. Thus, wearing comfort is also very
critical for practical applications. Improving device breathability could
be one of the effective pathways. Textiles are inherently porous and
facilitate efficient breathing for the skin, so a textile-based TENG could
be a wise choice to improve device breathability. The other pathway
depends on the artificially designed, optimized structures for skin
breathing, especially applied on thin films and membranes, which could
be a trend of future development in the long term. Device softness could
be another direction to improve the wearability. Some soft and skin-
friendly materials could be widely employed to improve the wearing
comfort of TENG devices.
Enhance the mechanical durability of the device. Wearable
TENGs may decrease in performance and lifetime due to the high-
frequency mechanical abrasion during body movement. Therefore, it
is particularly important to take effective measures to solve this prob­
lem. To our best knowledge, there are three ways that might help alle­
viate these challenges. (1) Using self-healing materials. Considering the
abrasion of triboelectric materials during friction, it is worth exploring
innovative materials with self-healing capabilities. (2) Intermittent
contact working mode. It is possible to design wearable TENGs that work
intermittently by designing ingenious structures or mechanical oper­
ating modes. For example, 10 cycles of work and 50 or more cycles of
rest could effectively reduce the number of contacts and then extend the
device lifetime without a significant impact on the output. (3) Stretch­
ability. Body movements will inevitably undergo large mechanical de­
formations. For instance, the bending angle of knee and elbow joints
usually exceeds more than 90◦ , which will lead to very severe stretching,
wrinkling, and even folding of TENGs. As a result, adopting stretchable
materials could be another solution to improve the mechanical dura­
bility of wearable TENGs for on-body energy harvesting.
Package. The temperature of the human skin and its perspiration, as
well as the environmental temperature and humidity, could show a
negative impact on the efficiency and stability of wearable TENGs. Thus,
it is particularly important to be able to carry out high-efficiency
packaging techniques for them. (1) Package materials chemical stabil­
ity. Human sweat is mainly composed of water, sodium, potassium, and
other minerals. This results in a weak acid that will corrode the pack­
aging material, so the anti-sweat material should be chosen to ensure
chemical stability. (2) Package materials mechanical stability. Soft
package materials with high resistance to temperature variation and
mechanical abrasion are highly desired. (3) Biocompatibility of package
materials. Once the TENG is encapsulated, the encapsulating material
comes into direct contact with the skin, so in order to improve comfort
and safety while wearing the TENG, the encapsulating material needs to
be biocompatible.
Washability. Some recently developed wearable TENGs, especially
Y. Zou et al. Nano Energy 77 (2020) 105303

Fig. 11. Conclusions and perspectives of wearable TENGs for electricity generation. Cost: Select materials that are low cost and convenient for large-scale pro­
duction. Wearability: Soft and breathable materials are urgently preferable. Integration: The application convenience and output performance are improved by the
way of integration system and multi-working mode. Robustness: Wear-resistant and self-healing materials are used to improve mechanical robustness and stability.
Package: Waterproof and wear-resistant packaging materials are used to improve the stability and durability. Washability: Waterproof materials are not affected by
environmental humidity and human sweat. Networking: The arrangement and configuration of energy nodes will be more convenient and intelligent through the
network of body wearable TENGs.

the smart textile-based TENG, could become dirty after usage, and if
they are not cleaned regularly they could produce unfavorable odors and
breed bacteria, which is harmful to our health. Therefore, it is particu­
larly important for TENG devices to be washable to maintain cleanliness.
To realize the washability, we could use washable package materials
with waterproof capability for the wearable TENGs. Alternatively, self-
cleaning materials for TENG can be applied to avoid the inconve­
nience of periodic disassembly and washing of the devices.
Boost the output power. To boost the power output of wearable
TENGs to practical application levels, advanced materials and device
designs are routine techniques and still highly desired. Since the existing
wearable TENGs are worn or sewn on a particular part of the body or
garment, they can only have very limited power delivered. Integration of
TENGs could be one of the feasible solutions to improve power gener­
ation. Firstly, it is important to create an integrated wearable TENG on-
body energy harvesting system. Each device in the system could adopt
different working modes to better fit the movement and characteristics
of each body part.
Adaptability. Since the main function of wearable TENGs is to
power on-body electronics, the adaptability between the two compo­
nents is very important. In addition to including the wire interconnec­
tion between them, it is more important to consider the compatibility of
structure and performance, achieving a highly collaborative work
system.
Networking. With the rapid development of the IoT and 5G wireless
networks, the networking of wearable TENGs is an inevitable develop­
ment trend. Wearable TENGs could be an important component of the
body area sensor network. To move forward, three concerns need to be
thoroughly addressed. (1) On-body device-to-device communication.
The data interaction and sharing of node devices in a network are very
important in long-term development because it can not only perceive the
working status of each other but also make it possible to conduct mul­
tiple TENG synergy operations for optimized efficiency. (2) Reacting to
the internet. If a TENG can be connected to the internet, all of its per­
formance parameters will be collected and transmitted to an internet
terminal so that it can be easily monitored for real-time changes in
working status and any appropriate adjustments to the use of the TENG
in the network according to the electricity demand of electronics can be
made. (3) Wireless energy transmission. This research direction is
particularly necessary since it could provide increased convenience and
freedom for the wearable TENGs to power wearable bioelectronics.
Author contributions
Supervision, J.C.; Conceptualization, J.C. and Y.Z.; Visualization, J.
C. and Y.Z.; Writing-Original Draft, Y. Z. and J.C.; Writing-Review &
Editing, Y.Z., V. R. and J.C.; Funding Acquisition, J.C.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the Henry Samueli School of Engineering
& Applied Science and the Department of Bioengineering at University
of California, Los Angeles for the startup support. J.C. also acknowledges
the 2020 Okawa Foundation Research Grant.

13
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