Indera dan Syaraf

Fisologi Hewan Air

Sistem Syaraf Pusat
 Otak
Fungsi Utama otak :
1. Menerima dan menginterprestasikan informasi
yang diterima dari indera baik eksternal maupun
internal.
2. Koordinasi dan memerintahkan seluruh aktivitas
tubuh baik melewati rangsangan syaraf maupun
hormon. Kebanyakan perintah dalam bentuk
stimulasi, meskipun ada yang bersifat inihibitory.
3. Integrasi dua fungsi otak di atas. Dari yang
sederhana seperti refleks pada pengaturan
jantung, pernafasan; sampai dengan yang
kompleks berupa pembelajaran.
 Bagian Otak
Divided into five divisions, from the anterior:
• the telencephalon,
• the diencephalon,
• the mesencephalon,
• the metencephalon or cerebellum
• the medulla oblongata
 Telencephalon
Telencephalon or forebrain is responsible for :
1. olfaction
2. for aspects of colour vision,
3. memory
4. reproductive
5. feeding behaviour.
 Diencephalon
Very variable in form
Usually small
subdivides into three distinct components :
1. the epithalamus,
2. the thalamus and
3. the hypothalamus.
Epithalamus
• consists of the pineal body, which is a light
receptor with possible endocrine functions,
• serve to coordinate outputs from pineal and
telencephalon to the thalamus.
• neural links with the retina and the optic lobes.
Thalamus
• very complex in structure
• has a number of nuclei whose sizes vary
considerably with species.
• the ventral parts of the diencephalon
• function mainly as correlation centres for
sensory inputs such as gustation and olfaction.
 Hypothalamus
• relatively large
• responsible for coordination of forebrain stimuli and
lateral line impulses.
• controlling feeding behaviour which receives both
olfactory and gustatory information
• have motor control over the jaw muscles involved in
feeding.
• The neurohypophysis/pars nervosa is a downward
pouching of the floor of the hypothalamus,
 Mesencephalon
relatively large
Anatomically subdivides into :
1. the optic tectum, which provides the roof
of the third ventricle,
2. the tegmentum, which is its floor.

•Optic tecum concerned with reception and

coordination of optic nerve inputs
 Cerebellum
varies in size and morphology between species.
Associated with reception and coordination of
proprioceptive and balance stimuli.
It has two components,
1.vestibulolateralis (basal) lobe, receives stimuli
from the vestibular apparatus and lateral line
inputs,
2.corpus cerebelli, receives sensory stimuli via the
spinal cord from extremities and proprioceptors.
 Medulla oblongata
The medulla merges with the spinal cord
without any distinct demarcation.
It comprises mainly four columns of nerve
fibres :
• the visceral sensory and motor
• The somatic sensory and motor tracts.
• These dorsal and ventral tracts also form the
roots of cranial nerves V to X.
 Cranial nerves
Pair 1:- Sensory connecting the nasal organs to the olfactory
lobes (Olfactory Nerve).
Pair 2 :- Sensory connecting the eyes with the optic lobes
(Optic nerve).
Pair 3 :- Connecting to muscles (Abducent).
Pair 4 :- Connecting to muscles (Trochlear).
Pair 5 :- Mixed, part sensory part muscles (Trigeminal).
Pair 6 :- Connecting to muscles (Abducent).
Pair 7:- Mixed, part sensory part muscles (Facial).
Pair 8 :- Sensory, connects the brain with the inner ear,
important for balance (Auditory).
Pair 9 :- Sensory, connects the brain with the gills and the
palate of the mouth (Glossopharingeal).
Pair 10:- Mixed, intestines, gills, heart and lateral line (Vagus
Nerve).
 Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord, or nerve cord is similar in all fish.
• It is a thick sheath of nervous material that runs from the
base of the brain back along the fish's body through, and
protected by, the neural canal of the spinal column.
• Normally it extends the full length of the fish's body, but a
notable exception to this is the giant Sunfish (Mola mola)
wherein the spinal cord is actually shorter than the brain.
It serves as the basis of many simple responses and as
the major link to the brain for sensory input and brain-
mediated responses.
• Normally there is one pair of spinal nerves (left and right)
for each vertebrae, thus long thin fish with many
vertebrae such as eels will have many more pairs of
spinal nerves than a much shorter fish such as a gobi
 PERIPHERAL NERVES
• There are 10 cranial nerves serving both
sensory and motor, voluntary and involuntary
functions of the head and, in the case of the
vagus, para - sympathetic supply to the main
visceral organs also.
Indera
Mata
 Cornea
• It is anterior most part of the eye.
• It is composed of corneal epithelium,
corneal stroma and corneal endothelium.
• In most bony fishes the cornea is without
pigment and hence is transparent.
 The Sclerotic Capsule:
• It is a tough and highly vasculated layer
surrounding the eyeball.
• It is supported by fibrous tissue in
elasmobranch.
• In Chondrostei (Sturgeon) the sclerotic
coat has a cartilaginous or sometimes
bony support at its corneal border.
 The Choroid Layer
• It is richly vasculated part, portal system.
• The choroid gland plays similar role for the
secretion of oxygen as do the rate mirabile of gas
bladder.
• The oxygen is secreted at higher tension than
those found in the blood so as to meet high
oxygen demand of the tissue.
• Thus choroid gland supplies the oxygen to the
retina and also it acts as a cushion against
compression of eyeball.
• In eel, however, the choroid is poorly supplied with
blood capillaries and choroid gland is absent.
 Iris:

• The iris is a thin partition between the

anterior and posterior chambers.
• It projects over the anterior surface of the
lens with its free edge forming the pupil
and controls the amount of light that
reaches the retina.
 Lens:
• The lens is firm, transparent and ball-like and
composed of non-collagenous protein.
• The lens is covered by the lens capsule and is
filled by lens substance. Between them is present
the lens epithelium, which plays an important role
in metabolic processes of the lens.
• The lens substance is composed of lens fibres
which are arranged in flat hexagonal prism.
• The lens fibres are highly modified epithelial cells.
• The bony fishes have roughly spherical lens.
 Retina
• It is the most important and sensitive part
of the eye
 The retina is composed of
:

(i) Melanin containing pigment epithelium

(ii) Layers of rods and cones
(iii) Outer limiting membrane
(iv) Outer nuclear layer
(v) Outer plexiform layer
(vi) Inner nuclear layer
(vii) Inner plexiform layer
(viii) Ganglion and nerve fibre layer and
(ix) Inner limiting membrane (Fig. 15.2).
Pigmented epithelium
 The Inner Ear / Labyrinth
• In fishes the middle ear apparatus is absent, only inner
ear is present which is concerned with two senses, i.e.,
hearing and equilibrium.
• It is contained partly in the auditory capsule and partly in
certain recesses outside and behind the capsule.
• It is made up of an upper portion (the pars superior) and
a lower portion (the pars inferior).
• The pars superior comprises three semicircular canals—
anterior vertical, posterior vertical, and horizontal canal.
• Each semicircular canal enlarges at one of its anterior
ends to from ampulla and a sac-like vesicle, the
utriculus.
Lateral Line System
• These ‘ neuromasts ’ are stimulated by transfer of
motion in the external milieu to the water inside the
canal, which mechanically displaces the receptors of
the neuromasts.
• These consist of pyriform receptor cells with a bundle
of sensory hair - like structures which extends up into
the gelatinous cupula (Figure 2.46 )
• Lateral line neuromast organs are very sensitive to
water particle displacement such as that induced by
he near - field sound of frequencies up to 200 Hz.
• Some fish are capable of detecting the vibrations of
active prey over distances up to 32 m.
 The Olfactory Organs:
• The organs of smell or olfactory organs in fish
are pouch-like structure that opens to the water
through incurrent and ex-current channels, i.e.,
naris or nares divided by flap of skin.
• epithelium which is projected in multi-folded
olfactory rosette of receptor cells.
Gustatory Organ
 SWIM-BLADDER
• Neutral buoyancy depends on maintaining a
constant volume in a flexible, gas - filled, buoyancy
chamber.
• In physostomes with access to the water – air
interface, inflation is produced by swallowing air
which is then forced via the pneumatic duct to the
swim - bladder.
• In physoclists, and those physostomes with no
access to the water – air interface, inflation is by the
release of gas from arterial blood passing through a
gland situated in the tunica interna of the
anteriorventral area of the swim – bladder
• The posterior chamber, being involved in gas
reabsorption
• The swim - bladders of many species are found to
have direct or indirect linkage with the perilymphatic
system of the inner ear.
• Fish with swim - bladders but without connections
with the inner ear (e.g. gadoids) can response at
frequencies below 520 Hz,
• the clupeids, ictalurids or cyprinids, with their direct
connection, may have frequency ranges of
perception between 13 and 4000 Hz.
• The presence of Weberian ossicles pushes the
upper - frequency response to as high as 5000 Hz.
Electric Fish
• Using electric discharges (called EOD, Electric
Organ Discharge) produced in a specially adapted
electric organ and specialized electroreceptors on
their body surface,
• In weakly electric fish like the Elephant Nose fish
(Gnathonemus petersii), this organ is located in the tail
• In strongly electric fish, the electric organ is larger and
can constitute a large portion of the fishes volume.
• The electric organ of the Electric Eel (Electrophorus
electricus) makes up about 40% of the eel's body
volume
• Signals are detected by special receptors
located on the skin of the fish.
• There are two kinds of receptors: tuberous and
ampullary.
• Tuberous electroreceptors respond to high
frequency signals (several hundred hertz) and
are specific to electric fish.
• Ampullary electroreceptors are found in both
electric and non-electric fish, and respond to
much lower frequencies