ELL211: Physical Electronics

Madhusudan Singh

IIT Delhi

Winter 2022

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 Lecture 4: Carrier statistics and populations

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Recap
Class problem with solved example.
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Bandstructure. Location of top of valence band. Direct and indirect bandgaps.
Examples of materials. Hole as the absence of an electron. Carriers that
participate in transport.
Silicon bandstructure. The first Brillouin zone (FBZ). Valence subbands: heavy
holes (HH), light holes (LH), and split-o↵ band. The concept of energy
degeneracy. Conduction band minima. Location in first Brillouin zone.
Bandstructure with two k-axes drawn collinearly for two di↵erent directions.
Shape of bandstructure close to band minima. Band structure definition of
e↵ective mass. Second rank tensor representation. Cross terms. Longtitudinal and
transverse e↵ective masses.
Representation of 4 dimensional data (k vector and energy) on two-dimensional
paper. Constant energy surfaces. Number of equivalent valleys. E↵ect on density
of states.
Density of states in various dimensions: 3, 2, 1 and 0. Examples of materials of
di↵erent dimensionality and some applications.
Two kinds of e↵ective masses: density of states e↵ective mass, and conductivity
e↵ective mass. Mathematical definitions. When to use which.
Bandgaps and lattice constants of various semiconductors. Applications in
optoelectronics. Impact on choice of substrate - strain in growth. Other properties
of semiconductors, and some applications.
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Class problem
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Question: Calculate the e↵ective mass tensor for this dispersion relationship:
E = EC + Ak12 + B k22 + k32 .
h i 1
@ 2 E(k)
Generalized definition of tensor elements for the e↵ective mass: mij⇤ = ~2 @ki @kj
.
2 2 2
⇤ ~ ⇤ ~ ⇤ ~
m11 = 2A
. m22 = 2B
. m33 = 2B
.
There are no mixed terms. Hence, mij⇤ = 1 8 i 6= j. The infinity implies that you
cannot have any motion corresponding to mixed terms owing to infinite e↵ective
inertia.
0 1 1
A
1 1
2
m⇤ = ~2 @ 1 B1 1 A.
1 1 B1
The use of e↵ective mass is typically for finding out the response of a carrier in a
semiconductor in response to external stimulus. Hence, the use of quasi-classical
equation, a = (m⇤ ) 1 F would make greater sense.
0 1
A 0 0
2 @
1
Thus, we can better write the inverse tensor, m⇤ = ~2 0 B 0 A.
0 0 B

ELL211 Instructors (IIT Delhi) ELL211 Winter 2022 3 / 12

Classical gas of electrons
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At any T > 0, particles are in motion.

If we model electrons as a classical
gas with no particle-particle
interactions except collisions, we can
derive a speed distribuition.
Equipartition theorem:
Ethermal = 12 kB T per degree of
freedom.
Few carriers at high kinetic energies.
Does not explain low-temperature
behavior, or bond formation. Reason:
electrons have significant long-range
interactions, and are fermions. ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆
m mv 2
fMB (v) = n exp
2⇡kB T 2kB T
(Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution)

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Fermi-Dirac Statistics
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Electrons and holes are fermions

(spin-1/2 particles) that are
indistinguishable. Pauli exclusion f (E) T = 4.2K
principle. T = 77K
T = 300K
Carrier distribution can be forced to 1
occupy higher energy levels even when
lower energy levels may be
“available”. Filling up of phase-space.
Statistical mechanics (can consult
Tony Guénault, or Kerson Huang) can
be used to derive a distribution EF E
function.
Fermi energy: 1
Maximum energy of carriers at
f (E, T ) = ⇣ ⌘
absolute zero (T = 0K ). 1 + exp EkB ETF
Equally likely to find a carrier
above it, and its absence below it
at any T > 0.

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Filling up states
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Wavefunction of any
particle: spatial and spin
terms. (r, s) = (r) · S(s)
Composite wavefunction
1 (r1 , s1 ) · 2 (r2 , s2 ) = 1 (r1 ) · S1 (s1 )
upon interaction.
When two identical ⇥ 2 (r2 ) · S2 (s2 )
8
(spin-half) particles > |"i |"i |S| = 1
interact, several possibilities >
>
>
<|#i |#i
exist for overall spinor. |S| = 1
S = |"i|#i+|#i|"i
Fermions (such as >
> p |S| = 1
electrons) ) The overall
>
> 2
: |"i|#ip |#i|"i |S| = 0
wavefunction must be 2
antisymmetric under · ·
1 (r1 , s1 ) 2 (r2 , s2 ) = 2 (r1 , s1 ) 1 (r2 , s2 )
exchange.
If spatial part is symmetric,
then the spin part must be
antisymmetric. Hence, no
two up-spins in the same
orbital.
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Fermi level in a semiconductor
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Consistent with the filling of

bands in Si, we can place the
Fermi level between the bands.

Source: Streetman

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Fermi level in a semiconductor
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Consistent with the filling of

bands in Si, we can place the
Fermi level between the bands.
The location of this level
should depend on the number
of carriers in the bands. Close
to midgap?
Ei

A semiconductor with no
additional impurities added,
with carrier populations
dictated by density of states
and the temperature, is called
intrinsic. The mid gap location
is also called the intrinsic
energy level (Ei ).

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Finding carrier concentrations
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Carrier presence requires: a) a state be available, and b) a carrier be available at the

ERmax
energy level corresponding to that state: n = f (E)g (E)dE.
Emin

If we consider the kernel of the integral: f (E)g (E), this function has a peak slightly
above the conduction band. Density of states at the band edge ⌘ 0.
p ⇣ ⇤ ⌘3/2 R 1 p
m E EC
In three dimensions for electrons, we can write, n = ⇡22 ~2n ⇣ E E ⌘ dE.
F
EC 1+exp kB T

Exact relation. Let us assume, n ⌘ NC f (EC ). This is the conduction band edge
e↵ective density of states. Similar quantity can be defined for the valence band.
3kB T approximation: we assume that the Fermi level is at least 3kB T away from the
E EF
bands. Why? Estimate: e kB T ⇠ e 3 ⇡ 20, or an error of one part in 20 if we throw
away the 1 in the denominator of f (E). A 5% error is generally considered acceptable
in rough estimates.

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Carrier concentrations in intrinsic semiconductors
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For an intrinsic semiconductor, EF = Ei .

Using 3kB T approximation, for electrons,
p ✓ ⇤ ◆3/2 Z1 p
2 mn E EC
ni ⇡ 2 ⇣ ⌘ dE
⇡ ~2 exp E EF
EC kB T
✓ ⇤ ◆3/2 ✓ ◆
1 mn kB T EC E i
= p exp
2 ⇡~2 kB T
| {z }
NC

Similarly, for holes,

p ✓ ⇤ ◆3/2 ZEV p
2 mp EV E
pi ⇡ 2 ⇣ ⌘ dE
⇡ ~2 exp E EF
1 kB T
✓ ⇤ ◆3/2 ✓ ◆
1 mp kB T Ei E V
= p exp
2 ⇡~2 kB T
| {z }
NV

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Law of mass action
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In an intrinsic semiconductor (T > 0K ), every electron promoted to the conduction

band leaves behind one hole. Hence, ni = pi .
Hence the product ni pi can be simplified:
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
EC E V Eg
ni pi = ni2 ⌘ NC NV exp ⌘ NC NV exp
kB T kB T

Thus,
p ✓ ◆
Eg
ni = NC NV exp
2kB T

The RHS is a function of a) material/bandstructure properties, b) fundamental

constant, c) temperature.
The intrinsic carrier concentration is thus a temperature-dependent material property.
For Si, Eg = 1.12 eV at T = 300K . Thus, we get, ni (300K ) = 1.45 ⇥ 1010 cm 3 for Si.
In general, this number is insufficient for high conductivity in Si.

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Location of the intrinsic energy level
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From earlier discussion, we can write,

✓ ◆
EC E i
ni = NC exp
kB T
✓ ◆
Ei E V
pi = NV exp
kB T

Inverting the relation,

✓ ◆
EC + E V 1 NC
Ei = kB T log
2 2 NV
✓ ◆
EC + E V 3 mn⇤
= kB T log
2 4 mp⇤

For Si, the intrinsic level lies slightly below mid-gap.

ELL211 Instructors (IIT Delhi) ELL211 Winter 2022 11 / 12

Conduction basics
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- - - - - - - - - -

⇣ Eg
⌘
Eg Thermal excitation: ni ⇠ exp 2kB T

+ + + + + + + + + +

T = 0K T > 0K
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