SCIENCE REVIEWER

3RD QUARTER

UNIT 6 - COORDINATED FUNCTIONS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE, ENDOCRINE, AND

NERVOUS SYSTEM

LESSON 1: THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

❖ Morphology and Physiology of the Male Reproductive System

- The Morphological and Physiology structure of the male reproductive system is different from the female
reproductive system.
- The external and internal differ in size and shape as well as its functions.
- The role of the male reproductive is to produce and transport Sperm Cells while the female reproductive is to
produce egg cells for childbearing.
❖ Urethra
- the tube that passes through the Penis to the outside of the body which carries urine and sperm
❖ Penis
- a soft, tubular organ that hangs in front of the body and is the external sexual organ of the male through which
the sperm is delivered into the female's body.
❖ Testes
- are made up of coiled tubules in which the sperm are produced. They produce the male sex hormones called
testosterone for the production of sperm.
❖ Epididymis
- is a coiled J-shaped tube located on the back of each testicle. It stores the sperm for two to four days after they
have been produced
❖ Vas Deferens
- the tube that receives sperm from the epididymis of each testicle
❖ Scrotum
- a pouch of skin that hangs from the penis which houses the testes and it protects the sperm by keeping the
temperature of the testes slightly lower than the normal body temperature in order for the sperm to survive
❖ The Glands and Ducts of the Male Reproductive Organ
1. Vas deferens - about 18 inches (45 centimeters) long and loop over the bladder
2. Urethra - the valve within the Urethra prevents the mixing of urine and Sperm
3. Seminal Vesicles - the two seminal vesicles at the base of the bladder secrete a thick fluid that nourishes the
sperm
4. Ejaculatory - the ejaculatory ducts are the tubes that are lined with muscles. These muscles contract to force the
semen out of the body during ejaculation
❖ Sperm Cell is a unique structure located in the testis; it fertilizes the egg.
❖ Males have two Testes found inside the Scrotum. It produces millions of sperm cells which can be observed only under
the microscope. The sperm cell which comes from the testes, and travels in the epididymis are temporarily stored until
they are released. The sperm cells are released and move along the Vas Deferens. Along the way, the sperms combine
with the prostate gland's nutrient secretions and seminal vesicles. This mixture is called Semen. The semen will be
transported into the Urethra and out of the Penis.
❖ Parts and Function of the Female Reproductive System
1. Ovaries
- are small and almond-shaped organs.
- It secretes hormones called estrogen and progesterone to produce mature egg cells.
➔ The egg cell begins to mature when the female reaches puberty.
2. Ovulation
- the process where ovaries usually produce and release one ripened egg every 28 days during puberty.
3. Fallopian tubes
- these are two very fine tubes which extend from each ovary into the uterus.
- its main function is to contain eggs until fertilization takes place and to provide a passageway leading
the sperm to the egg and the fertilized egg to the uterus.
4. Uterus or womb
- is the hallow, muscular, pear-shaped organ located between two ovaries.
- where the fertilized egg will develop and grow into a baby.
5. Cervix
 - a narrow structure within an inch-long canal connecting the lower end of the end of the uterus to the
upper portion of the vagina.

6. Vagina or birth canal

- is the hallow tube leading from the cervix to the outside of the body.
7. Vulva
- the external genitalia which includes the following parts:
a. Mons veneris
- is the hairy skin-covered pad of fat over the pubic bone.
b. Labia Minora
- is the small lips covered with modified skin.
c. Labia Majora
- is the large lips covered with pubic hair.
d. Clitoris
- is the small almond-shaped erectile tissue located below the junction of two minora.
e. Vaginal Orifice
- is the opening into the vagina.

❖ Role of Hormones in the Reproductive System

➢ Hormones
- plays an important role that regulates the function of a specific organ of the body; these are regulating
and complex chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands that are carried through the
bloodstream to the target organ in many areas of the body.

➢ Reproductive glands
- are controlled by the pituitary gland, which is controlled by the hypothalamus.

➢ Hypothalamus
- releases chemical substances that signal the pituitary gland to start producing two hormones responsible
for reproduction—the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

Gland Hormones Function

● It regulates the development of the male sex organs in embryo.

Testes (Male) Testosterone ● It also controls sex drive and secondary sex characteristics at
puberty.

● It controls sex drive and regulates the development of female sex

Estrogen characteristics at puberty.

Ovaries (Female)

● It controls the development of endometrium (mucus membrane

lining womb) during menstrual cycle and maintenance of uterus
Progesterone during pregnancy.

Prolactin ● Stimulates the production of milk in mammary glands.

Luteinizing hormone ● In females, it stimulates ovulation, maturation of egg cells, and

(LH) progesterone production; whereas in males, it stimulates sperm and
testosterone production.

Pituitary Follicle-stimulating ● In females, it stimulates the maturation of egg cells in the ovary and
hormone estrogen production; whereas in males, it stimulates sperm
(FSH) production.

❖ Menstrual Cycle
- monthly period; the monthly shedding of the lining in the uterus.
- females begin to menstruate between the ages of 11 and 15.
- can last 28 days, but some menstrual cycles as short as 21 days or as long as 35 days are considered normal.
❖ Uterus,
- it’s where a baby grows when a woman is pregnant. The inner lining of the uterus or also
❖ Endometrium
- the inner lining of the uterus.
❖ Menstruation or Menstrual Period
- the discharge of blood and tissue.
➔ 1st day of the menstrual cycle - is when the uterus starts to shed its lining and as soon as the period
ends the uterus prepares again to receive a fertilized egg. Eggs are released from ovaries.
➔ first half of the cycle (1-14) - pituitary hormones Follicle Stimulating Hormones or FSH stimulate an
egg to mature inside one of the ovaries. When the egg starts to develop, it secretes estrogen, which
causes the endometrium to thicken.
➔ middle of the cycle (about day 14) - the level of Luteinizing Hormone or LH starts to rise; thus,
ovulation occurs. Then the ovary releases the egg and travels into the fallopian tube.
❖ It takes 7 days for the egg to travel. After the time the egg reaches the uterus, the production of progesterone increases.
As progesterone increases, it maintains the growth of the endometrium.

PHASE EVENTS DURATION (DAYS)

Follicular Phase Ø During menstruation, it breaks down the endometrium. 1-5

Ø Levels of estrogen and progesterone are low.

Ø In the ovary, the follicle matures and rebuilds the endometrium. 6-13
Ovulation Ø Begins with a rise in the levels of FSH and LH.

Ø Secondary oocyte is released from the ovary. 14

Luteal Phase Ø Formation of the corpus luteum; endometrium thickens and 15-28
develops.
Ø The levels of FSH and LH decrease.

❖ The Development of Life

1. Gametogenesis
- the first stage in early embryonic animal development; is the formation of the gamete (which is the
sperm and egg).
2. Fertilization
- the second stage is when the sperm penetrates the egg and then a fusion with the nucleus occurs.
3. Cleavage
- the third stage in which the fertilized egg goes into a series of mitotic cell divisions and later becomes
the early embryo.
4. Gastrulation
- the fourth stage is to organize cell migration patterns in the embryo to form two or more primary germ
layers (which are the region layers of cells forming all of the organs in the animal body).
5. Organogenesis
- the fifth stage which is a process of cell differentiation and formation of all the major organs once the
germ layers have been formed.
6. Growth and Tissue Specialization
- the last stage is when the organs have acquired their unique structures and chemical properties.

❖ The Process of Fertilization and the Development of the Human Embryo

➔ First Week of Development
1. Fertilization - the union of sperm cell from a male and an egg cell from a female. After fertilization,
the zygote travels in the oviduct to get nutrients from the maternal secretions, then will undergo the
process of first mitotic cell division which forms cleavages. When it reaches the uterus, cleavages have
transformed into a solid group of cells called morula and later on will develop into a blastocyst. There
is an inner cell mass of the blastocysts having a surface layer called the trophoblast.
2. Implantation - process of attachment where the blastocyst begins to adhere itself to the uterine lining.
3. Embryo - called after the blastocyst has been implanted
 ➔ The Embryo
1. Embryo - is the initial development stage in humans after fertilization.
2. Placenta - it is the bond that holds the embryo to the wall of the uterus.
3. Umblinical Cord - a cord forms between the embryo and placenta; embryo’s lifeline, meaning the
embryo gets its oxygen and food from the mother through the placenta
4. Amniotic Sac - a sac of a thin sheet of tissue where the developing embryo is enclosed
5. Amniotic Fluid - within the amniotic sac and where the embryo floats; serves as a shock absorber and
helps the embryo to maintain its temperature
➔ The Fetus
- after two months, the embryo is about 1.2 inches (3cm) long and has a recognizable human form or
fetus.
- Placenta - helps the fetus grow; connects to the developing embryo by means of the umbilical cord

At this time, some human features are starting to develop: eyes, a nose, a mouth and ears are growing on the outside, while
important body systems- like the respiratory organs and nerves are rapidly growing on the inside. At four months, the fetus moves
and can be recognized. The baby’s eyelashes are formed, and eyelids can be recognized at seven months. All the organs are well
developed on the ninth month; the baby is ready to be born.

LESSON 2: The Endocrine and Nervous System

❖ The Over-all Role of the Endocrine System

➢ Endocrine system
- is made up of a group of organs called endocrine glands.
➢ Gland
- is the smallest living unit in the body that produces and releases a chemical substance called hormones.

1. Endocrine system consists of many glands which secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate the daily
activities of the body and controls its overall development. The hormones act as chemical messengers in the body which
stimulates many organs such as the ovaries and the testes.

2. Endocrine system is also known as the “system of checks and balances” that works to keep the body system healthy. One
of the instances, when the endocrine system is working properly, is by sending chemical signals to another gland which
response by controlling the chemicals of the first gland.

3. It is similar to a thermostat (temperature regulator) because it may turn on when the temperature is below normal and
may turn off when the temperature is above normal, thus the endocrine system turns on and off in response to the level of
hormones in the body.

4. When the endocrine system is not properly doing its job, the over health of the body may be affected such as energy
level, physical appearance and the ability to produce offspring.

The Location and Role of the Endocrine Glands in the Body

Gland Hormone Function and Location

Hypothalamus Releasing factors It is connected to the pituitary gland by blood vessels to

Oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
regulate body temperature, blood pressure, and use of water.
The antidiuretic hormone (ADH) increases water uptake
in the kidney. The oxytocin released from the hypothalamus
is to control muscle contractions of the uterus and milk
production. The hypothalamus is a small gland located at
the base of the brain. It regulates the activities of the body,
metabolism, and reproduction.
 Pituitary Adrenocorticotropic hormone It stimulates the adrenal gland to release specific hormones.
(ACTH) Thyroid stimulating It stimulates the thyroid gland to release specific hormones.
hormone (TSH) Growth hormone It regulates the growth of the skeletal system It stimulates
prolactin milk production in mammary glands.

Adrenal Adrenaline It controls "fight or flight" response. The adrenalin

(epinephrine) Aldosterone
hormone is released into the blood stream when a person
has a fright. It is found just above the kidney. It produces
specific hormones that affect the functioning of the kidneys,
metabolism, and response to stressful situations. It also
secretes both male and female sex hormones in both sexes.
It increases uptake of sodium and water in the kidney.

Thyroid Thyroxine Calcitonin It is located at the front of the pituitary gland. It regulates
the rate of metabolism. This gland secretes thyroxine, which
contains iodine and the calcitonin which controls calcium
level in bloodstream.

Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone These are four tiny glands connected to the back of the
thyroid gland. The parathyroid hormone regulates the
minerals in the body calcium and phosphorus in the
bloodstream.
 Pancreas Insulin Glucogen It is located beneath the stomach. The insulin controls the
level of sugar in the blood. The glucogen stimulates the
liver to convert glycogen to glucose. Hypoglycemia can
occur if there is a low sugar in the blood.

Thymus Ovaries and Testes Estrogen It is located in the upper chest of the heart. It plays an
important role in developing some of the body's defenses
Progesterone Testosterone against infection. These two reproductive glands play an
important role in reproduction.

❖ Positive and Negative Feedback Coordinated by the Different Systems of the Human Body
➢ Homeostasis - it is responsible for the regulation and maintenance of the internal environment of the body; it
regulates the body temperatures, fluids, salts, acids, gasses, and nutrients that help support human life.
1. Sensors - are receptors that are responsible for gathering information about the conditions inside and
outside your body.
2. Control Center - the control center of the body is the brain which is part of our nervous system; the
brain receives information from the sensors.
3. Communicating Systems - the nervous systems and the endocrine systems are the communicating
systems of the body; they carry the information to all parts of the body.
4. Targets - is any organ, tissue, or cell which is responsible for the changes in the activity of the body in
response to the message received.
❖ Parts of the Neuron:
A. Dendrites - are branched cell components that receive stimulus from other neurons or sensory receptors.
B. Cell body - contains a nucleus which will process the stimulus.
C. Axon - will transmit stimulus to a gland, muscle, organ, or other neuron.

❖ Target Cell Response to Hormones

- different types of hormones are secreted by endocrine glands and are directly diffused into the bloodstream. The
hormones will travel to the different parts of the body. Only the target cells have receptors to which the specific
type of hormone can bind. The response occurs when the hormones lock, and key binding triggers the target
tissue.

Feedback Mechanisms Involved in Regulating Processes in the Female Reproductive System

❖ Feedback Systems
- many functions of the body and processes operate using this.
- the body maintains its state of balance or homeostasis through a control system activated by many feedback
systems.

❖ The nervous system and the endocrine system play an important role to function the feedback system of the body. The
nerve cells are able to perceive changes once hormones are released in the body from the endocrine system in which the
brain responds quickly. The hormones of the endocrine system control the system slowly.
How Nervous System Coordinates and Regulates Feedback Mechanism to Maintain Homeostasis

❖ Homeostasis and Internal Environment

- the complex tissues, organs, and organ systems in our body must respond to the different conditions and
situations in the environment. The body has variety control systems to keep its internal environment stable and
responsible for maintaining homeostasis.

❖ Negative feedback
- is a control system to reduce or minimize any changes or conditions of the body, which keeps the whole body
system stable. It is also a mechanism that regulates homeostasis.
- the term negative is a deviation from set point.
➔ Set point - the normal value and ideal requirement of the body to maintain homeostasis.

❖ The secretions of hormones from the endocrine glands are under the control of the hypothalamus
which is also controlled by negative feedback.

❖ Examples of negative feedback loop works:

➔ Increased Breathing
➔ Levels of glucose (sugar) in the blood

❖ Negative feedback loops maintain state of balance by reversing change to return its normal condition of the body.

❖ Another example of a negative feedback mechanism is when the levels of glucose (sugar) in the blood are regulated the
hormone insulin. When blood sugar increases in the body, the receptors in the body detect a change. Due to this
condition, the pancreas release insulin into the blood effectively to lower down the sugar level. The pancreas stops
releasing insulin once the blood glucose level reach homeostasis.

❖ Components of Negative Feedback

- The control center of the body is the brain, which establishes set point
- The receptor detects changes within the body.
- The receptor monitors the environment and responds to change (stimuli).
- The effector is responsible for the response to changes.
- The stimulus produces a change to a variable (the factor being regulated).

❖ Positive feedback
- a control system that uses information from sensors to increase the rate of processes. It is also the exact opposite
of a negative feedback mechanism.
- this type of feedback is important whenever a rapid change is necessary; it deviates from a set point; therefore, it
become greater which makes a bad situation worse; this type of feedback is rarely found in healthy people.
❖ Example of Positive Feedback Systems
➔ If you cut your finger, positive feedback mechanism is used in the production of nerve impulse and increase the
rate of change in blood clotting until the wound is sealed.
➔ During childbirth. During labor, the oxytocin release in the uterus intensifies and speeds up contractions. The
release of oxytocin stops when the baby is born. The birth ends the release of oxytocin and ends the positive
feedback mechanism.

UNIT 7 - HEREDITY: INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

LESSON 1: How Protein is Made Using Information from DNA

❖ Protein
- is the most varied molecule in which human body contains at least 10,00 different kinds of proteins
- Proteins that occur in the body are large, complex molecules: Oxygen, Hydrogen, Carbon, and Nitrogen.
- essential part of the structure of cells; acts as an enzyme or catalyst for chemical reactions in cells.

❖ Amino Acids
- are the building blocks of proteins, which are made up of long chains of chemical units; there a re 20 different
amino acids.
- 2 types of Amino Acids
➔ Essential Amino Acids - cannot be produced by the human body.
➔ Non-essential Amino Acids - can be produced by the human body.

❖ Three Kinds of RNA in Protein Synthesis:

 1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) - a type of molecule of RNA that travels from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm; where the information in the copy is used for a protein product.
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - RNA component of the ribosome and a cell's protein factory in all living cells;
provides a mechanism for decoding mRNA into amino acid and interacts with tRNA.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) - an adaptor molecule composed of RNA; typically 73-93 nucleotides in length that
brings amino acids from the cytoplasm to a ribosome to help make the growing protein.

❖ Genetic Code
- shared by all organisms; refers to the instructions contained in a gene that tell a cell how to make a specific
protein.

❖ DNA Polymerase
- group of enzymes that are responsible for bonding the new nucleotide together.

❖ The Replication Process:

- Before the cell of an organism can reproduce, it must first replicate or make a copy of their DNA; copy of the
DNA happens whether the cell is prokaryote or a eukaryote.
- The following steps describe the replication of DNA in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells:
1. DNA replication takes place in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes and in the nucleus of eukaryotes. The
enzymes start to unzip the double helix as the nucleotide base pairs separate. Each side of the double
helix runs in opposite directions. At same time, replication begins on both strands of the molecules.
2. Free nucleotides pair with the base exposed as the template strand continuously unzip, an enzyme
complex-DNA polymerase attaches the nucleotide together to form a new strand similar to each
template.
3. A sub-unit of the DNA polymerase proofreads the new DNA and the DNA ligase (enzyme) seals up the
fragments into one long strand.
4. Two similar double-stranded molecules of DNA result from replication. The new copies automatically
wind up again. According to Nowick, "DNA replication is semi-conservative because one old strand is
conserved, and a new strand is made."

❖ Process of Producing Protein from DNA:

➔ Transcription - occurs when the nucleotide sequence along the DNA is copied into a strand of mRNA.
➔ Translation - the final step in the synthesis of a small protein through the help of the mRNA; is the conversion
of the RNA into a protein.

LESSON 2: Mutations that Occur in Sex Cells as being Heritable

❖ Mutation
- is the change in genetic material

❖ Mutagens
- different types of agents whether in the form of physical or chemical that can cause the alteration of the structure

❖ Mutation could be the result of the following:

- DNA copying mistakes during cell division
- Exposure to ionizing radiation like gamma rays from radioactive elements such as uranium and plutonium.
- Direct exposure to chemicals or through infection by bacteria or virus.

❖ Chromosomes
- made up of a chemical substance called deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.
➔ Most of the cells in the bodies contain 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 sets of chromosomes where the
sex cells contain half of this number

❖ Genes
- basic unit of heredity; can be found in the chromosomes.

❖ Somatic Mutation
- occurs in non-reproductive cells and will not be passed onto the offspring.
❖ Germinal Mutation
- the germ cells give rise to sex cells that will carry the mutations that will be passed on to the next generation.

❖ Chromosome Mutation
- are departures from what is a normal or desirable set of chromosomes either for an individual or from a species
- changes in the number sets of chromosomes (-ploidy) and changes in the number of individual chromosomes
(-somy) and its appearance.

❖ Types of Chromosomal Mutation:

➔ Insertion - a genetic material added from another chromosome.
➔ Translocation - happens when a part of a chromosome breaks off and combines to another chromosome; this
type of disorder is due to chromosomal-level mutation.
➔ Deletion - happens when there is a loss of part of a chromosome.
➔ Duplication - happens if there are extra copies of a part of a chromosome.
➔ Inversion - happens when the direction of a part of a chromosome is reserved.

❖ Genetic Diorders:
1. Recessive Disorders
- happens when a child receives two defective genes from each parent
➔ Carrier - a person who receives one defective recessive gene.
a. Sickle Cell Anemia - is a genetic blood disorder. A person who inherits two
defective genes will have abnormally shaped red blood cells and may die at an early
stage.
b. Tay-Sachs Disease - is characterized by the lack of an important chemical in the
brain. Infants who have this kind of disease usually die within their first five years.
c. Phenylketonuria or PKU - is a rare genetic disorder that can cause serious mental
retardation in infants. An infant who has this kind of disorder cannot breakdown
phenylalanine (a chemical commonly found in food) that it builds up in the body, in
which the brain is affected. This kind of disease can be treated through a special diet.
d. Cystic Fibrosis - is a disease in which some glands produce too much mucus that it
clogs and damages the lungs. This disease is fatal among children because it causes
difficulty in breathing.

2. Sex-linked Disorders
- are more common in men because they have only one X chromosome, so all defective genes on the
chromosome will be expressed.
- a woman who had this kind of disease may pass it on to her children.
➔ Blindness & Hemophilia - the most common type of
3. Human Genetic syndrome
- There are some genetic disorders that may have few or too much chromosomes. A person who survived
during chromosomal mutations is categorized by a distinctive set of mental or physical abnormalities.
a. Cri du chat - caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosomes 5. Babies who
have this disease have wide-set eyes and small head and jaw.

b. William syndrome - result from the loss of a segment in chromosome 7. They have large ears
and facial features that make them look like live elves.

c. Down syndrome (trisomy 21) - known as Mongolism. A child receives an extra chromosome
(chromosome 21) and has a distinctive physical appearance. It is the most common cause of
mental retardation. It can be a mild or severe mental retardation.

d. Patau's syndrome (trisomy 13) - caused by an extra copy of the number 13 chromosome.
Based on the study, about 90% of babies with this syndrome do not survive infancy. Severe
mental retardation occurred to those who survived.

e. Turner's syndrome - has 45 chromosomes. About 96-98% with this condition do not survive
at birth. It is a genetic disorder that affects women. Those who survived with this condition
 usually have no menstruation, have narrow hips, breasts are not developed, and with broad
shoulders and neck.

f. Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY) - another genetic disorder. A male who has this has two or
more X-chromosomes in addition to their Y-chromosomes. They lack facial hair and their
testes, including the prostate gland, are underdeveloped.

❖ Impact of Mutation of Phenotype

- mutations of the chromosomes directly affect the genes which can cause human genetic disorders.
➔ Silent Mutation - a mutation that has no effect on the protein.
➔ Missense Mutation - happens when a point of mutation in which a single nucleotide change, results in
different codes of amino acid.

❖ Impact of Mutation on offsprings:

➔ Body Cells - mutation damages only the organism in which they occur.
➔ Missense Mutation - mutation may be passed to offspring.

Amino Acids and their Corresponding Codons

Amino Acid DNA Codons

Isoleucine ATT, ATC, ATA

Leucine CTT, CTC, CTA, CTG, TTA, TTG

Valine GTT, GTC, GTA, GTG

Phenylalanine TTT, TTC

Methionine ATG

Cysteine TGT, TGC

Alanine GCT, GCC, GCA, GCG

Glycine GGT, GGC, GGA, GGG

Proline CCT, CCC, CCA, CCG

Threonine ACT, ACC, ACA, ACG

Serine TCT, TCC, TCA, TCG, AGT, AGC

Tyrocine TAT, TAC

Tryptophan TGG

Glutamine CAA, CAG

Asparagine AAT, AAC

Histidine CAT, CAC

Glutamic Acid GAA, GAG

Aspartic Acid GAT, GAC

Lysine AAA, AAG

Arginine CGT, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG

Stop Codons TAA, TAG, TGA

❖ Causes of Mutation
 1. Smoking - can cause germ cell mutagens that can destroy and cause cancer and diseases.
2. Effect of old age on offspring - healthy and normal eggs produced by females will decline as they get older.
3. Chemotherapy - can cause DNA mutations to the offspring; the genome affected by chemotherapy drugs will
not stabilize, resulting in new mutations.
4. External Influences - too much exposure to hazardous chemical and radiation such as x-rays and gamma rays
can cause mutations.

UNIT 8 - Biodiversity and Evolution

LESSON 1: Evidence of Evolution

❖ Evolution
- developmental process by which all organisms develop from earlier forms of life.

❖ Embryology
- scientific study of embryos; the study of the development of the anatomy of an organism to its adult form.
- provides evidence for evolution as embryo formation in widely-divergent groups of organisms tends to be
conserved.

❖ Homologous Structure
- refers to the physical structures of the organisms that have the same evolutionary origin and positions; structure
of animals that are similar to one another which suggest that they originated from a common ancestor.

❖ Vestigial Structure
- refers to the structure of animals which is gradually disappearing.
- A structure of an organism with few or no function but it is clearly homologous to the structure of other
organisms, a biological structure that has lost a major ancestral function and is usually drastically reduced in
size.
- Well-known examples: the eyes of blind cave fishes, blind cave salamanders, and the diminutive wings of kiwis
and emus.

❖ Genetics
- another evidence of evolution in which organisms have the basic heredity units for all life which consist of
similar nucleotides and proteins, the passing of genetic information and traits (such as eye color and an
increased chance of getting a certain disease) from parents to offspring.

❖ Heredity
- is the passing of genetic information and traits from parents to offspring.

❖ Fossils
- remains of plants and animals
- formed when living organisms are quickly buried in sand, mud, and gravel at the bottom part of the different
bodies of water.
- they also include any preserved trace of life that is typically more than 10,000 years old.

LESSON 2: Occurrence of evolution

❖ Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

- Darwin and a scientific contemporary of his, Alfred Russel Wallace, proposed that evolution occurs because of a
phenomenon called natural selection. In the theory of natural selection, organisms produce more offspring than
are able to survive in their environment.

1. Living Things produce more offspring that actually survive.

- refers to the observation that most organisms produce more offspring than are necessary to
replace themselves; cannot support every living thing that is born.
- this excess of offspring is known as "overproduction."
2. Each organism has the ability to survive.
 - this is when each organism possesses the ability to defend themselves/survive in the
wilderness, unless the organisms do not have enough resources and shelter then they will not
last long.
- every living thing has the ability to get what they need to survive.

3. Variation within a species.

- refers to differences in physical or behavioural traits that exist among individuals within a
population.
- these variations can be heritable and can result from genetic differences or from differences in
the environment or experience of an individual.
- Variation is a crucial component of natural selection because it provides the raw material
upon which the process acts.

4. Variation of members of a species.

- refers to differences in physical and behavioural traits that exist among individuals within a
population.
- variation can arise from a variety of sources, including genetic differences, environmental
factors, and random chance.

5. Living things that survive and reproduce pass their genetic traits to their offspring.
- refers to the idea that the traits of an organism are passed on to its offspring through its genetic
material, which is inherited by its offspring.
- This process of passing on genetic traits from one generation to the next is known as
"heredity."
- the process by which natural selection acts on a population, as individuals with advantageous
traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing their advantageous traits on to their
offspring.

❖ Factors that can Lead to Evolution

1. Gene Flow
- when certain organisms join a new population and reproduce; the transfer of alleles from one
population to another population.
- increases genetic variation when the area receives the population.
- occurs when several animals move from one population to another.

2. Genetic Drift
- also called as genetic sampling error or Sewall Wright effect.
- a change in allele frequencies that affect an organism to be eliminated; usually occurs in smaller
populations; in a small population with many alleles, any of the alleles can become extinct.
- is the change in allele frequencies that are due to chance alone, which causes a loss of genetic diversity
in a population.

➔ Types of Genetic Drift

1. Bottleneck Effect - the population size severely decreases due to competition,
predators, or diseases.
2. Founder Effect - a new population is formed and founded in a new location due to
physical or geographical barriers.

3. Mutation
- new alleles can form through mutation that will create another genetic variation needed for evolution.
- a change in the DNA sequence of an organism; can result from errors in DNA replication during cell
division, exposure to mutagens or a viral infection.
- are happening in our cells all the time, but almost none of these affect our health.

4. Sexual Selection
➔ Intersexual Selection - happens when male display unique traits that attract the female
 ➔ Intrasexual Selection - happens when there is completion among males; the one who will win the
competition will mate with the female.

UNIT 9 - Ecosystem

LESSON 1: Species Diversity and its Effect on Survival of Organisms

❖ Ecosystem
- is the basic functional unit in ecology which includes organism, populations, and communities which are
influencing the different properties of other living organisms.
➢ “There is a deep interconnectedness of all life on earth, from the tiniest organisms to the largest
ecosystems, and absolutely between each person.” - BRYANT H. MCGILL
➢ “Environmental sustainability is key in naturing a healthy ecosystem that is mutually beneficial to a
healthier quality of life today and in the future.” - WAYNE CHIRISA

❖ Two Parts of every Ecosystem

1. Biotic Components
- the living organisms that directly or indirectly affect other organisms in an environment.
2. Abiotic Components
- the non-living elements of an ecosystem include all chemical and physical substances; referred to as a
limiting factor.

❖ Energy
- all living things living in different ecosystems need energy; the activity of every species uses energy to survive.
- some organisms depend on producers as their energy source for them to maintain their role in the ecosystem.
- does not cycle through ecosystems, instead they move to another direction

❖ Entropy
- a process where the transfer of energy loses most of usable energy as heat; thus, energy never returns to the sun,
therefore it is impossible to cycle; energy from the sun.

❖ Atom
- tiny particles that all matter in the ecosystem is made up of; smallest particles of elements that can take part in a
chemical reaction.

❖ Organisms
- have basic needs just like humans; they need air, water, light, and nutrients.
- can survive only in environments in which their needs can be met.

❖ ABIOTIC FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE SURVIVAL OF ORGANISMS ON ECOSYSTEM (These are the
factors that lead to survival of organisms in changing environment):
1. Water
- the most essential biotic factor which helps most living things survive; lifeblood of Earth
- consists of essential elements of all living; the availability of water in the ecosystem increases and
decreases due to the changing environment.

2. Temperature
- the heat and cold equilibrium in combination with many environmental factors governs several
physiological and biological processes of the earth.
- different time zones & locations = different temperatures.

3. Light
- main source of energy for all plants, animals, and humans.
- Importance of light in Plants, Humans, and Animals:
➔ Plants - for the process of photosynthesis
➔ Humans - nutrients to become healthy, for cooking, for livelihood, etc.
➔ Animals - helps them to be oriented where their source of food is for them to survive.
 4. Atmospheric Pressure
- due to the gravitational force of earth in which the atmospheric gases are pulled toward the surface
which produces air pressure.
- increases with the increasing death of the oceans which will induce certain types of animals and plants
to survive in the different locations of oceans.

5. Chemical Components
➔ Essential Elements of Life
- Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen
➔ Organic & Inorganic Compounds
- derived mostly from plants and other food sources which are very essential for every organism
to survive.

❖ Adaptation of Survival
- all organisms have their own way of adaptations that help them survive and thrive; usually happens when a gene
mutates or changes by accident.

❖ Structural Adaptation
- the physical characteristics of an organism that help it survive in its ecosystem.
➔ Animals and plants have a protective covering to retain water in their bodies. For example, camels can
learn to adapt to survive when there are changes in the atmosphere. Living organisms depend on their
physical appearance to help them secure food, keep themselves safe, build their homes, and withstand
climate change

BODY PARTS THAT HELP ANIMAL STRUCTURE THEMSELVES AND HELP THEM SURVIVE

Shape of a Bird’s Beak Number of Fingers Color of the Fur and Skin Thickness or Thinness of
the Body Covering

It helps them to procure It helps them feed It helps them to protect themselves To protect themselves in
food from their themselves. from fast-changing weather conditions. case of danger. (e.g., nails,
surroundings. They change the color of their skin to hair, glands)
deceive their enemies by blending in
with their environment. It is known as
camouflage.

❖ Adaptations for Unfavorable Conditions

➢ Hibernation
- a way of preserving energy in order to endure bad weather conditions or a shortage of food
- characterized by physiological changes such as a decrease in body temperature and a slowing of
metabolism.
➢ Estivation
- animals that live in deserts, like squirrels and some insects, go into a deep sleep during the summer;
animals sleep underground, where the temperature is as hot as a furnace.
- an example of this is snails; they close the opening in its shell, thus sealing themselves inside.

ANIMALS AND PLANTS WITH THEIR SPECIAL SURVIVAL CHARACTERISTICS

CHARACTERISTICS ANIMALS PLANTS

Male Reproduction Attracting mates-sex attractants of Facilitate pollination- scents and

insects, mating dance scorpions. colorful petals of the flowers attract
insects like bees and butterflies.

Competition of Food The tongue of the snakes and frogs, long Large and numerous root system for
neck of giraffe. absorbing water and nutrients.
 Migration or Seed Dispersal Migratory birds, ducks, monarch With light pollen grains, seeds with
butterflies. wing-like structure.

Adaptation Hibernation, thick fur and feather. Needle-like leaf structure, big trunk and
numerous branches.

Protection from Predators Running ability like tiger, changing Spines, tendrils, thorns, bitter taste like
color in their skin like chameleon and tannin.
frog.

PLANT ADAPTATION AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

SPINE OR THORN TENDRIL PROP ROOT

sharp, pointed structure; for protection, long, thin, and coloring structure; attach thin and long, that are attached to the
to reduce the heating effect of the sun. to the plant for support, and climbing. stem; for support .

❖ Biodiversity
- is the sum of all the different species occupying a wide variety of ecosystem and the foundation of life on Earth.

❖ Traditional Three Levels at which Biological Variety has been identified (three levels of biological biodiversity that
comprises the biosphere):
1. Species Diversity
- refers to different species within a region or a community; number of species in a region or community
possesses genetic variation and distributions (many species live on land rather than in the sea).
2. Genetic Diversity
- refers to the variation of genes within species; covers distinct populations of the same species.
- for example, different varieties of fungi, wheat, and rice.
3. Ecosystem Diversity
- refers to the different biomes which are called the world’s major communities which are characterised
by adaptations of organisms in a particular environment.
- deserts, marine, tundra, grassland, and tropical rain forest are examples of biomes.

❖ Competition and Predation are important ways in which an organism interacts with an ecosystem.

LESSON 2: Relationship Between Population Growth and Carrying Capacity to Minimize Human Impacts on
Environment

❖ Carrying Capacity
- denotes the maximum number of individuals of a given species that an area’s resources can sustain indefinitely
without significantly depleting or degrading those resources.

❖ Variation of factors of the carrying capacity of an environment:

1. The amount of resources available in the ecosystem
- concerning the availability of our sources, food, shelter, and water supply are most usable resources of
energy for many living organisms.
2. Environmental conditions and amount of living space
- overpopulation of species in an ecosystem adversely affects the supply of resources , and therefore,
diseases, drought, and extreme temperature occur that affects many species.
 3. Overpopulation
- refers to the condition wherein an organism's numbers exceed the carrying capacity of its habitat.

❖ Effects of Overpopulation
➢ Fresh water for potable water is inadequate.
➢ Natural resources are depleted, especially fossil fuels.
➢ There is an increased level of air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and noise pollution.
➢ Deforestation and loss of ecosystems occur.
➢ Change of atmospheric composition and consequent global warming.
➢ Mass species extinction from reduced habitat in tropical forests due to slash-and-burn technique.
➢ High infant and child mortality.
➢ Starvation, malnutrition, or poor diet will lead to diet-deficiency diseases.
➢ Clash over scarce resources and crowding leads increases levels of warfare.

❖ Factors that Affect Overpopulation

1. Immigration
- the transfer of individuals into a population from another population due to a weather condition in the
environment and lack of food supply.
2. Emigration
- the transfer of individuals out of one population and into another population.
3. Birth
- refers to the emergence of an animal or young of a human into the outside world; percentage of birth
rate (human) is higher than death rate (humans).
4. Death
- size of a population declines when individuals die.

❖ Struggle for Survival

➢ Thomas Malthus
- an english economist, wrote an essay on the “Principle of Population”
- he said that the population grows geometrically, which means that the population rate will be doubled
whereas food supply increases arithmetically as the amount of land is finite.
- he predicted that the population would grow until the demand of food supply is diminished, then, there
would be widespread poverty.
➢ Principle of Population
- describes a forthcoming population catastrophe.
➢ According to Malthu’s core principle, “Food is essential for life”
➢ Population growth will always surpass food supply, and human progress is impossible without strict limits on
reproduction. Impact of Human Activities on Biodiversity.

❖ Impact of Human Activities on Biodiversity Loss

1. Global Warming
- is the rapid increase of temperature released in the atmosphere due to greenhouse gases such as carbon
monoxide, sulfur oxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides.
- greatly affects many living organisms to extinction because they can no longer adapt to the high level
of temperature.
2. Population Growth
- the rapid increase of the human population the more it can contribute of greenhouse gases.
3. Pollution
- defined as the presence of harmful materials in the environment that have a negative impact on living
organisms and their surroundings; these harmful materials are referred to as pollutants.
➔ Smog - the chemical compounds released through burning fossil fuels can combine to form a
haze of matter in the atmosphere.
➔ Chemical Smog - a very hazardous compound for the species to be extinct.
4. Habitat Destruction
- It is the process of destroying or degrading the natural environment and ecosystems in which organisms
live; it is primarily caused by human activities such as deforestation, population growth, mining, and
farming.
- can occur due to negligence and irresponsible human beings; the main threat to biodiversity and
sometimes leads to animal and plant extinction
❖ Causes of Habitat Destruction
1. Logging
- the act of trimming and transporting trees; improper logging can cause soil erosion that greatly affects
our biodiversity.
2. Agriculture
- wild lands are converted for agriculture and farming
- many species occupying the wild lands are affected and are forced to find another habitat.
3. Forest Fires
- happens when humans illegally clear an area of trees; destroys about 15 to 36 million acres of tropical
forest every year.
4. Building Roads and Bridges
- humans are cutting down trees and clearing wild land to build roads and bridges.
- the natural habitat of many species are lost which causes them to die and become extinct.

❖ Oppurtunities to Avoid or Minimize Negative Environmental Effects

➢ Consideration of environmental factors in the early stages of decision making.
➢ Reducing energy consumption and increasing use of renewable energy sources such as hydropower and solar
energy.
➢ Increase reuse and recycling, thus, decreasing resource consumption, and waste production.
➢ Biodiversity
- is a source of test organisms’ samples in conducting research studies to discover things for wellness.

❖ Three kinds of Biodiversity:

1. Marine Biodiversity
- the oceans and seas are our richest source of biodiversity.
- Manila Times.net, published in November 18, 2012, that "The Philippines is among the six countries
that comprise the Coral Triangle Region-the home to the richest marine life on earth."
- the Philippines has the largest recorded number of coral species; it consists of around 430 species,
which represent about 50% of the coral species in the world.
2. Freshwater Biodiversity
- freshwater habitats are home to a variety of fish, shrimps, and mollusks, as well as invasive exotic flora
species.
- this biodiversity is essential for humans' livelihood and consumption, as it supports life cycles and
sustains terrestrial species.
3. Terrestrial Biodiversity
- forest and mountain ecosystems have a high level of biodiversity, with plants such as wild ferns,
mosses, and shrubs found on shrub and herb layers.
- some species are sensitive to the high altitude and temperature, which can affect their conditions.

❖ Ways to Minimize Human Impact on the Environment

1. Forest Management
- a kind of practice for stewardship (man must conserve and preserve nature) and the proper use of forest
land in a suitable manner.
➔ Forest
- one of the main habitats of many species; is necessary that one must be aware of
protecting the forest because other species of birds and other species make the forests
their home.
➔ Republic Act No. 3572
- an act to prohibit cutting of Tindalo, Ankle, or Molave Trees.
2. Soil Management
- a constituent part of our ecosystem and a substrate for most of Earth’s flora especially for vegetable and
root crops.
- pouring hazardous chemicals in the soil will cause it to be absorbed by plants which will cause them to
die.
3. Air Quality Management
- pertains to different uses of innovative processes to maintain healthy air in the environment.
- dumping solid waste anywhere could lead to air pollution.
4. Marine Water and Freshwater Management
- being responsible citizens, we can do simple means in managing a good quality of marine and
freshwater. For example, do not throw away trash in bodies of water, follow rules and generations once
you go for a swim