Lecture # 5 & 6 PDF

Predicate Calculus
Structures and
Strategies for
3 State Space
Search
•
•
John’s meals are spicy.
If it doesn’t rain on Monday, Tom will go to
mountains.
• All basketball player are tall
• Some people like chocolates
7/27/2006 CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - 1 7/27/2006 CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - 2
Amelia Ritahani Ismail Amelia Ritahani Ismail
Predicate Calculus
∀X meal_of(X,John) → spicy(X) • Represent the following sentences in first order

¬weather(rain, monday) → go(tom, mountains
) logic, using consistent vocabulary:
– takes(x,c,s): student x takes course c in semester s
∀ X (basketball_ player( X ) → tall( X )) – passes(x,c,s): student x passes course c in semester s
∃X ( person( X ) ∧ likes( X , chocolates))
Chapter 3: Outlines Introduction
• Introduction • To successfully design and implement search

• Graph Theory algorithms, a programmer must be able to analyze
and predict their behavior.
• Strategies for State Space Search • Some questions that need to be answered include:
• Using the State Space to Represent Reasoning – Is the problem solver guaranteed to find a solution?
with the Predicate Calculus – Will the problem solver always terminate, or can it become
caught in an infinite loop?
– When a solution is found, it is guaranteed to be optimal.
– What about the complexity?
1
Introduction Introduction- Graph Theory
• The theory of state space search is our primary tool • What is a graph?
for answering these questions. – It consists of a set of nodes and a set of arcs or
• By representing a problem as a state space graph, we links connecting pairs of nodes
can use graph theory to analyze the structures and
complexity of both the problem and the search
• In the state space of problem solving:
procedures that we employ to solve it. – The nodes are taken to represent discrete
(isolated) states
– The arcs are representing transition between
states
Introduction Introduction
• Example: Fig 3.1: The city of Königsberg
– The Swiss mathematician – Leonhard Euler invented graph
theory to solve the “bridges of Königsberg problem”
(Newman 1956)
– The city of Königsberg occupied both banks and 2 islands of
a river.
– The islands and the riverbanks were connected by 7 bridges
as indicated in the next slide. The city is divided by a river.
There are two islands at the river. The first island is
connected by two bridges to both riverbanks and is also
connected by a bridge to the other island. The second island
is connected by two bridges each connecting to one
riverbank.
Introduction Introduction
Fig 3.2: Graph of the Königsberg bridge system
• The problem:
– “If there is a walk around the city that crosses
NODES:
each bridge exactly one”
• Euler created an alternative representation for
the map, as indicated in Fig 3.2 (next slide).
ARCH:
2
Definition of a graph Definition of a graph
• Each bridge requires 2 connect predicates, one for
• A graph consists of each direction in which the bridge may be crossed.
• A predicate expression (below) indicating that any
– A set of nodes (can be infinite) bridge can be crossed in either direction.
– A set of arcs that connect pairs of nodes. connect(X, Y, Z) = connect(Y, X, Z)
• An arc is an ordered pair, e.g., e.g.: connect(i1, i2, b1) = connect (i2, i1, b1)
(i1, rb1), Therefore, we can remove the second one.
(rb1, i1).
Definitions - Graph Labeled directed graph
Representation: Graph G =(V, E) consists set of vertices

denoted by V, or by V(G) and set of edges E, or E(G)
• A labeled graph has one or more descriptors (labels)

attached to each node that distinguish that node from
other node in the graph
A and C are
ancestors of
state g, h and I
Arch of a
graph is
Graph Theory And
G, h and I are
labeled / descendants
weight to
indicate A tree us a
relationship Rooted graph has a root:
graph in
(usually drawn at the top,
above other nodes and which two
there is a path from the nodes have at
root to all nodes within the most one
graph.
Graph is path between
directed if it them. Trees
arcs have often have
associated Relationship roots
between nodes
directionality include parent,
(arrow) child and siblings
( parent
preceding its Siblings
child)
Fig 3.5: A rooted tree, exemplifying family relationships
3
Definition of a graph Definition of a graph
• A graph consists of nodes and arcs. • A leaf or tip node is a node that has no children
• If a directed arc connects N and M, N is called the (sometimes also called a dead end).
parent, and M is called the child. If N is also connected • A path of length n is an ordered sequence of n+1
nodes such that the graph contains arcs from each
to K, M and K are siblings. node to the following ones.
• A rooted tree has a unique node which has no parents. E.g., [a b e] is a path of length 2.
The edges in a rooted tree are directed away from the • On a path in a rooted graph, a node is said to be an
root. Each node in a rooted tree has a unique parent. ancestor of all the nodes positioned after it (to its
right), as well as a descendant of all nodes before it
(to its left).
Definition of a graph Definitions – Edge Type
• A path that contains any node more than Directed: Ordered pair of vertices. Represented as (u, v) directed from
vertex u to v.
once is said to contain a cycle or loop.
• A tree is a graph in which there is a u v
unique path between every pair of nodes. Undirected: Unordered pair of vertices. Represented as {u, v}.
Disregards any sense of direction and treats both end vertices
• Two nodes are said to be connected if a interchangeably.
path exists that includes them both.
u v
Definitions – Edge Type Definitions – Graph Type

• Loop: A loop is an edge whose endpoints are equal i.e., an edge
Simple (Undirected) Graph: consists of V, a nonempty set of
joining a vertex to it self is called a loop. Represented as {u, u}
vertices, and E, a set of unordered pairs of distinct elements of
= {u} V called edges (undirected)
Representation Example: G(V, E), V = {u, v, w}, E = {{u, v},
{v, w}, {u, w}}
u
• Multiple Edges: Two or more edges joining the same pair of u v
vertices.
4
Definitions – Graph Type Definitions – Graph Type
Multigraph: G(V,E), consists of set of vertices V, set of Edges Pseudograph: G(V,E), consists of set of vertices V, set of
E and a function f from E to {{u, v}| u, v V, u ≠ v}. The Edges E and a function F from E to {{u, v}| u, v Î V}.
edges e1 and e2 are called multiple or parallel edges if f Loops allowed in such a graph.
(e1) = f (e2). Representation Example: V = {u, v, w}, E = {e1, e2, e3, e4}
Representation Example: V = {u, v, w}, E = {e1, e2, e3}
u
e1 w e4
u e2
e1 e2
w
v e3
e3
v
Definitions – Graph Type Definitions – Graph Type
Directed Multigraph: G(V,E), consists of set of vertices V, set

Directed Graph: G(V, E), set of vertices V, and set of Edges E,
that are ordered pair of elements of V (directed edges) of Edges E and a function f from E to {{u, v}| u, v V}. The
edges e1 and e2 are multiple edges if f(e1) = f(e2)
Representation Example: G(V, E), V = {u, v, w}, E = {(u, v), (v,
w), (w, u)} Representation Example: V = {u, v, w}, E = {e1, e2, e3, e4}
u v
u
u e4
e1 e2
w e3
u
Definitions – Graph Type Representation- Adjacency Matrix
Type Edges Multiple Edges Loops Allowed ? • Example: Undirected Graph G (V, E)
Allowed ?
Simple Graph v u w
u
Multigraph v 0 1 1
Pseudograph
u 1 0 1
v w
Directed Graph
w 1 1 0
Directed
Multigraph
5
Representation- Adjacency Matrix
• Example: directed Graph G (V, E) • Draw a simple graph with adjacency matrix
with respect to the ordering vertices a, b, c
u
v u w and d.
v 0 1 0
0 1 1 1
u 0 0 1
v w 1 0 1 0
w 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
Representation- Incidence Matrix
G = (V, E) be an unditected graph. Suppose that v1, v2, v3, …, vn are the
• From the directed graph below, find an •
vertices and e1, e2, …, em are the edges of G. Then the incidence matrix with
respect to this ordering of V and E is the nx m matrix M = [m ij], where
adjacency matrix for the given directed graph
below: 1 when edge ej is incident with vi
m ij = 
0 otherwise
Can also be used to represent :
Multiple edges: by using columns with identical entries, since these edges
are incident with the same pair of vertices
Loops: by using a column with exactly one entry equal to 1, corresponding
to the vertex that is incident with the loop
Graph descriptions :
Representation- Incidence Matrix
Find the adjacency matrix
• one row per vertex
• Representation Example: G = (V, E) • one colum per vertex
• value = 1 if vertices are adjacent
e1 e2 e3
from\to a b c d e f g h
u a 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
v 1 0 1
e1 e2 b 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 e1
u 1 1 0
c 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e3
w 0 1 1 d 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 a e2
b c
v w
e 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 e5
e3 e7 e4 e6
f 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 d e
h 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
f g e8 h
6
Graph descriptions : incidence matrix
Graph descriptions : adjacency list
• one row per edge • A list of out-going vertices is associated to each
• one colum per vertex vertex
• value = 1 if edge and vertex are incident • Compact representation
• Optionally, a list of in-going vertices can be
edge\vertex a b c d e f g h added to allow reverse-traversal of the graph
e1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 e1
e2 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 e1 Vertex out in e3
e3 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 a (b,b) () a e2
b c
e3 b (c,e) (a,e)
e4 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 a e2
b c e7
e5
e5 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 c () (b,e) e4 e6
e5
e6 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 e7 e4 e6 d (d) (d) d e
e (b,c) (b)
e7 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 d e f () ()
e8 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 f g e8 h
g (h) ()
f g e8 h h () (h)
The State Representation of Problems
• A state space consists of

– A (possibly infinite) set of states
STATE SPACE SEARCH • The start state represents the initial problem
• Each state represents some configuration reachable
from the start state
• Some states may be goal states (solutions)
– A set of operators
• Applying an operator to a state transforms it to
another state in the state space
• Not all operators are applicable to all states
The State Representation of Problems Graph Theory

The State Representation of Problems: Example 1 The State Representation of Problems: Example 2~
~ THE MAZE ~ THE 15-PUZZLE ~
Start state: • The start state is some (almost) random
• A maze can be represented as a state space
3 10 13 7 configuration of the tiles
– Each state represents “where you are” in the maze
9 14 6 1 • The goal state is as shown
– The start state represents your starting position
4 15 2 • Operators are
– The goal state represents the exit from the maze
11 8 5 12 – Move empty space up
• Operators (for a rectangular maze) are: move north, move
south, move east, and move west Goal state: – Move empty space down
– Each operator takes you to a new state (maze location) – Move empty space right
1 2 3 4
– Operators may not always apply, because of walls in the – Move empty space left
5 6 7 8
maze 9 10 11 12 • Operators apply if not beside edge
13 14 15
7
State space of the 8-puzzle (repeated) The 8-puzzle problem as state space
search
• states: possible board positions
• operators: one for sliding each square in each of four
directions,
or, better, one for moving the blank square in each of
four directions
• initial state: some given board position
• goal state: some given board position
• Note: the “solution” is not interesting here, we need
the path.
Strategies for State Space Search Strategies for State Space Search
Data-driven and Goal-driven search Data-driven search

• A state space may be searched in 2 directions • Sometimes called forward chaining.
from the given data of a problem instance • Data-driven reasoning takes the facts of the problem and
applies the rules and legal moves to produce new facts
towards a goal or from a goal back to the
that lead to a goal.
data.
7/27/2006 CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - 45 Fig 3.10:

7/27/2006State space in which
CSCdata-directed search
3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - prunes irrelevant 46
data and their consequents and determines one of a number of possible goals
Goal-driven search
Data-driven search is suggested if: • Sometimes called backward chaining.
• All or most of the data are given in the initial problem • Goal-driven reasoning focuses on the goal, finds the rules
that could produce the goal, and chains backward through
statement. successive rules and sub-goals to the given facts of the
• There are a large number of potential goals but there are problem.
only a few ways to use the facts and given information of
a particular problem instance.
• It is difficult to form a goal or hypothesis.
Fig 3.11: State space in which goal-directed search

effectively prunes extraneous search paths
8
Goal-driven search is suggested if: • In addition to specifying a search direction (data-driven

• A goal or hypothesis is given in the problem statement or or goal-driven), a search algorithm must determine the
can be easily formulated. order which states are examined in the tree or graph.
• There are a large number of rules that match the facts of the • 2 possibilities for the order in which the nodes of the
problem and thus produce an increasing number of graph are considered:
conclusions or goals.
– Depth-first search
• Problem data are not given but must be acquired by the
– Breadth-first search
problem solver. In this case, goal-driven search can help
guide data acquisition.
Strategies for State Space Search Depth- first Search
Depth-first Search
• In this search, when a state is examined, all of its
children and their descendants are examined before any
of its siblings.
• This search goes deeper into the search space whenever
this is possible.
• Only when no further descendants of a state can be
found are its siblings are considered.
Fig 3.12: Graph for breadth - and depth - first search examples
The search:
Depth-first Search A, B, E, K, S, L, T, Breadth-first Search
F, M, C, G, N, H, O, P, • In contrast to depth-first search, it explore the space in
U, D, I, Q, J, R a level-by-level fashion.
• Only when there are no more states to be explored at a
given level does the algorithm move on to the next
The
level.
backtrack
algorithm
implemented
in depth-first
search
9
DEPTH FIRST SEARCH
Strategies for State Space Search :pre-order tree traversal with a stack
• Push root onto the stack
The search: • While stack is not empty
Breadth-first Search A, B, C, D, E, F, G, – Pop a vertex off stack, and write it to the output list
H, I, J, K, L, M, N, – Push its children right-to-left onto stack
1
O, P, Q, R, S, T, U α Step Output Stack
0 α 2 11
ε δ 1 α δ,ε
2 ε δ,β,ι
ι β κ λ 3 ι δ,β 3 4 12 13
4 β δ,φ
φ 5 φ δ,γ 5
6 γ δ,η,ϕ
γ 7 ϕ δ,η,µ 6
ϕ η 8 µ δ,η,χ
9 χ δ,η 7 10
µ 10 η δ
11 δ λ,κ 8
χ 12 κ λ
9
13 λ
Breadth-first Search a. Draw the tree corresponding to the adjacency list below.
Level-order tree traversal with a queue

b.
c.
Which node is the root ?
Label the nodes according to the pre-order traversal
algorithm given below. Indicate at each step the state of the
Exercise
• Enqueue root stack and the output.
• While queue is not empty Push root onto the stack
– Dequeue a vertex and write it to the output 1 While stack is not empty
list • Pop a vertex off stack, and write it to the output list
– Enqueue its children left-to-right 2 3 • Push its children right-to-left onto stack
α
Step Output Queue
ε δ 4 5 6 7 Vertex out
0 α
1 α ε,δ A (K,G)
ι β κ λ 2 ε δ,ι,β 8 B ()
3 δ ι,β,κ,λ C (D,A)
φ 4 ι β,κ,λ D ()
5 β κ,λ,φ 9
γ E (C,F)
6 κ λ,φ
F ()
ϕ η 7 λ φ 10 11 G (H)
8 φ γ
µ H ()
9 γ ϕ,η
10 ϕ η,µ 12 I ()
χ J ()
11 η µ,χ
12 µ χ 13 K (J,B,I)
13 χ
Traveling salesperson problem as state

State space search
space search
• Example: The Traveling Salesperson • The salesperson has n cities to visit and must
– Suppose a salesperson has 5 cities to visit and then return home. Find the shortest path to
then must return home travel.
– The goal of the problem is to find the shortest path • state space:
for the salesperson to travel, visiting each city and
then returning to the starting city. • operators:
• The nodes representing the cities (A, B. C, D and E) • initial state:
• Each arc is labeled with a weight indicating the cost of
traveling that arc (either by car or air flight) • goal state:
• Assume: the salesperson lives in city A & return there
10
An instance of the traveling Search of the traveling salesperson problem. (arc
salesperson problem label = cost from root)
Nearest neighbor path Shortest Path

• Generalize distance to weighted setting
• Digraph G = (V,E) with weight function W: E → R (assigning real values
GO TO THE to edges)
CLOSEST • Weight of path p = v1 → v2 → … → vk is
UNVISITED k −1
CITY… w( p ) = ∑ w(vi , vi +1 )
i =1
• Shortest path = a path of the minimum weight
• Applications
– static/dynamic network routing
– robot motion planning
– map/route generation in traffic
Nearest neighbor path = AEDBCA (550)
Minimal
7/27/2006 cost path = ABCDEA (375) 1 (2006-2007) -
CSC 3301- Semester 63 7/27/2006 CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - 64
Shortest Path Algorithm:

Shortest-Path Problems Dijkstra's Shortest path finding algorithm
• Shortest-Path problems • Input: a weighted connected graph G whose edge-weights are non-negative, and
a starting vertex α
– Single-source (single-destination). Find a shortest path • Output: a spanning tree, rooted at α, whose path from each vertex v is the
from a given source (vertex s) to each of the vertices. The shortest path from α to v in G; the vertex-labelling gives the distance from s to
topic of this lecture. each vertex
β 8 χ
– Single-pair. Given two vertices, find a shortest path 7
α
between them. Solution to single-source problem solves this
problem efficiently, too. 2 3 3 2 4
ε γ η
δ φ 2 2
– All-pairs. Find shortest-paths for every pair of vertices.
Dynamic programming algorithm. 3 4 4 9
– Unweighted shortest-paths – BFS.
6 7 ι ϕ 9
λ 11
7/27/2006 CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - 65 7/27/2006 κ CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - µ 66
11
Dijkstra's Shortest path finding Dijkstra's Shortest path finding algorithm
algorithm • While T does not span G
– Update frontier edges
• Initialise the Dijkstra tree T as vertex α
– For each frontier edge e
• dist[αα] = 0 • let x be the labelled and y the unlabelled endpoints of e
• write label 0 on vertex α • set P(e) = dist[x] + w(e)
β 8 χ β χ
7 7 (7) 8
α (0) α (0)
2 3 3 2 4 2 (2) 3 (3) 3 2 4
ε γ η ε γ η
δ φ 2 2 δ φ 2 2
3 4 4 9 3 4 4 9
6 7 ι ϕ 9 6 7 ι ϕ 9
λ 11 λ 11
7/27/2006 κ CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - µ 67 7/27/2006 κ CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - µ 68
Dijkstra's Shortest path finding algorithm Dijkstra's Shortest path finding algorithm
• While T does not span G • While T does not span G
– Update frontier edges – Update frontier edges
– For each frontier edge e – For each frontier edge e
• let x be the labelled and y the unlabelled endpoints of e • let x be the labelled and y the unlabelled endpoints of e
• set P(e) = dist[x] + w(e) • set P(e) = dist[x] + w(e)
– Let e be a frontier edge that has the smallest P-value – Let e be a frontier edge that has the smallest P-value
– Add edge e to T, and set dist[y] = P(e) – Add edge e to T, and set dist[y] = P(e)
β χ β χ
7 (7) 8 7 (7) 8
α (0) α (0)
2 (2) 3 (3) 3 2 4 2 (2) 3 (3) 3 2 4

ε γ η ε γ η
δ (2) φ 2 2 δ (2) φ 2 2
3 4 4 9 3 4 4 9
6 7 ι ϕ 9 6 7 ι ϕ 9
λ 11 λ (9) 11
7/27/2006 κ CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - µ 69 7/27/2006 κ (8) CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - µ 70
β χ β χ
7 (7) 8 7 (7) 8
α (0) α (0)
3 (3) 3 2 3 (3) 3 2
2 (2) 4 2 (2) 4
ε γ η ε (3) γ η
δ (2) φ 2 2 δ (2) φ 2 2
3 4 4 9 3 4 4 9
6 (8) ι ϕ 9 6 (8) ι ϕ 9
7 (9) λ 7 (9) λ
11 11
12
β χ β χ
7 (7) 8 7 (7) 8
α (0) α (0)
3 (3) 2 3 (3) 2
2 (2) 3 (6) 4 2 (2) 3 (6) 4
ε (3) γ η ε (3) γ η
δ (2) φ 2 2 δ (2) φ 2 2
3 (6) 4 (7) 4 3 (6) 4 (7) 4

9 9
6 (8) ι ϕ 9 6 (8) ι (6) ϕ 9

7 (9) λ 7 (9) λ
11 11
a. Draw a graph on the basis of the adjacency matrix below.
Dijkstra's Shortest path finding algorithm b. Knowing that each cell of the matrix indicates the weight of an arc, label the arcs
on the graph.
c. Apply Dijkstra algorithm to find the shortest path from A to H in the graph.
• While T does not span G
– Update frontier edges
– For each frontier edge e
• let x be the labelled and y the unlabelled endpoints of e
• set P(e) = dist[x] + w(e)
– Let e be a frontier edge that has the smallest P-value A 0
– Add edge e to T, and set dist[y] = P(e) 1 5 1 5
from\to A B C D E F G H
β (6) χ A 1 5 B
1
C 1
1
5
7 (7) 8
α (0) B 2 4
3 (3) 2 C 1 4 2 4 1 4 2 4 1 4
2 (2) 3 (6) 4
ε (3) γ η D 1 10
δ (2) φ 2 2 D
1 7
G 3
1 7
9
E 1 1 10 7 1
E 1
4
3 (6) 4 (7) 4 F 1
9 10 10 2 10 10 2
G 2 1 1
H 2 H F 12 11
6 (8) ι (6) ϕ 9 2 2
7 (9) λ
11
7/27/2006 κ CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - µ 75 7/27/2006 CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - 76
Using the State Space to Represent Reasoning

with the Predicate Calculus
Using the State Space to Represent State Space Description of a Logical System
• First example of how a set of logical relationships may be
Reasoning with the Predicate viewed as defining graph is from the propositional calculus.
Calculus • If p, q, r, …. are propositions, assume the assertions
(statement) :
• q -> p
• r -> p
• v -> q
• s -> r
• t -> r
• s -> u
• s
• t
13
Using the State Space to Represent Reasoning Using the State Space to Represent Reasoning
with the Predicate Calculus with the Predicate Calculus
State Space Description of a Logical System State Space Description of a Logical System: And/Or
q -> p graphs
r -> p • In the expression of the form (below) both q and
v -> q r must be true for the p to be true.
s -> r
– q ^ r -> p
t -> r
s -> u • In the expression of the form (below), the truth
s of either q or r is sufficient to prove p is true
t – q v r -> p
Fig 3.13: State space graph of a set of implications in the
propositional calculus.
Using the State Space to Represent Reasoning with the

Predicate Calculus And/or graph of the expression
q∧r→p
State Space Description of a Logical System
Fig 3.14: And/or graph of the Fig 3.15: And/or graph of the
expression q Λ r → p. expression q v r → p .
And/or graph of the expression And/or graph of a set of propositional

q∨r→p calculus expressions
From this
prepositional
calculus, draw its
representation using
the state space
diagram.
14
a. Draw a graph on the basis of the adjacency matrix below.
b. Knowing that each cell of the matrix indicates the weight of an arc, label the
arcs on the graph.
c. Apply Dijkstra algorithm to find the shortest path from A to B in the graph.
Exercise from\to
A
A B C D
9
E F G
1 5
H
B
C 4 1
D 3
E 1
F 1
G 15 3
H 10 4 9 11
a. Draw the tree corresponding to the adjacency list below. a. Draw the tree corresponding to the adjacency list below.
b. Which node is the root ? b. Which node is the root ?
c. Label the nodes according to the pre-order traversal c. Label the nodes according to the level-order traversal algorithm
algorithm given below. Indicate at each step the state of the given below. Indicate at each step the state of the queue and the
stack and the output. output.
Push root onto the stack Enqueue root
While stack is not empty While queue is not empty
• Pop a vertex off stack, and write it to the output list Dequeue a vertex and write it to the output list
Enqueue its children left-to-right
• Push its children right-to-left onto stack
Vertex out
Vertex out
A (B,C)
A (K,G)
B (D,E,F)
B () C (G)
C (D,A) D ()
D () E ()
E (C,F) F ()
F () G (H,I)
G (H) H ()
H () I (J,K)
I () J ()
J () K ()
K (J,B,I)
END OF CHAPTER 3
7/27/2006 CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - 89

Amelia Ritahani Ismail
15

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Predicate Calculus

∀X meal_of(X,John) → spicy(X) • Represent the following sentences in first order

Chapter 3: Outlines Introduction

• Introduction • To successfully design and implement search

Definitions - Graph Labeled directed graph

Representation: Graph G =(V, E) consists set of vertices

• A labeled graph has one or more descriptors (labels)

Fig 3.5: A rooted tree, exemplifying family relationships

Definition of a graph Definitions – Edge Type

Definitions – Edge Type Definitions – Graph Type

Definitions – Graph Type Definitions – Graph Type

Directed Multigraph: G(V,E), consists of set of vertices V, set

Definitions – Graph Type Representation- Adjacency Matrix

Representation- Incidence Matrix

The State Representation of Problems

• A state space consists of

The State Representation of Problems Graph Theory

Data-driven and Goal-driven search Data-driven search

7/27/2006 CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - 45 Fig 3.10:

Fig 3.11: State space in which goal-directed search

Goal-driven search is suggested if: • In addition to specifying a search direction (data-driven

Strategies for State Space Search Depth- first Search

Level-order tree traversal with a queue

Traveling salesperson problem as state

Nearest neighbor path Shortest Path

Shortest Path Algorithm:

2 (2) 3 (3) 3 2 4 2 (2) 3 (3) 3 2 4

3 (6) 4 (7) 4 3 (6) 4 (7) 4

6 (8) ι ϕ 9 6 (8) ι (6) ϕ 9

a. Draw a graph on the basis of the adjacency matrix below.

Using the State Space to Represent Reasoning

Using the State Space to Represent Reasoning with the

And/or graph of the expression And/or graph of a set of propositional

7/27/2006 CSC 3301- Semester 1 (2006-2007) - 89

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