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BAA 326 

History if Sciences and Technology in Anceint India 

Semester – VI 

By @Harshit Sharma 

Q1. Write an essay on the origin and development of Iron technology in

India. 

The Usage of Iron in India is estimated to be started from Aryan age. There is no evidence
to show its usage in Harappan Civilization. 

India anticraft and metal industry can be said to be started from mining of Iron ore.  

Impact of Iron Technology in history of Ancient India: – 

1. Rise of Magadh Empire: – Iron is used in various construction, sculptures and

stupas. Iron is mined and used for making of vessels ornaments etc. 

2. Use in War Times: – Iron is mined and used for making of weapons used in war.
Increase in weapons made Indians sub-continent to withstand against foreign
invasions. 

3. Ancient Economy: – Iron is used for minting coins which is used for medium of
trade and business. Iron is used for making agricultural instruments which has
better life than wood. 

4. Rewards & Inscriptions: – Large Iron sheets are made and pasted on walls of
temples and other constructions to write progress of kings and kingdom I.e, present
days inscriptions. Iron used to record happenings of that time by making it into
small structures that resembles a book. 

5. Instruments of Construction: – Iron which is a strong metal used for making

instruments used in constructions. It made easy breaking down rocks to make caves,
Rock cut temples etc. 

Conclusion: – 

The metal , Iron undoubtedly played a major role in Indian history and stood as a main
reason in making India great at that time. 

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India, now in present days stood at 3rd largest country producing iron which is a basic
material essential in all industrial activity. This shows that Iron stood as base of Indian
lifestyle all the time. 

Q2. Discuss the development of Algebra in Ancient India. 

One-sixth of the bees in a colony of bees went to a Paatali flower (Stereospermum

suaveolens, पाटली), one-third went to the kadamba tree (Burflower tree), one-fourth flew
off to a mango tree and one-fifth went to the champaka tree and one-thirtieth went off to a
beautiful bed of lotuses. If only one bee was buzzing around then tell me O friend! How
many bees were there in the colony? 

The above problem on Algebra is from Bhaskaracharya’s (Bhaskaracharya II) (Born 1114
AD) book Lilavati. Bhaskaracharya had composed this book in 1150 AD to teach
Mathematics to his daughter Lilavati, after whom the book is named. This book which is
written entirely in verse covers arithmetic, algebra, geometry, mensuration,
combinatorics, number theory and other basic topics. This book was used as a standard
textbook for almost 700 years. 

The subject of Algebra originated in India. Its origin can be traced back to the Shatapatha
Brahmana (शतपथब्राह्मण) (2000 BCE) and the Sulba sutras (800-500 BCE). Algebra was
used to design and construct the vedis. 

Algebra was invented by Aryabhatta, who was a pioneer in astrology, astronomy and
Mathematics. He viewed Mathematics as a different subject in itself. However, most
people consider Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi as father of Algebra now. He was a
9th-century Muslim mathematician who wrote a book called “Kitab al-Jabr” from which
term Algebra has been derived. 

The Indian name for algebra is Bijaganita (बीजगणित). Bija (बीज) means analysis and ganita
(गणित) means “the science of calculation”. Thus Bijaganita literally means “the science of
analytical calculation”. Algebra is also called अव्यक्त गणित  (avyakta ganita), that is the “the
science of calculation with unknowns” (avyakta means unknown). Whereas Arithmetic
is व्यक्त गणित  (vyakta ganita), that is the “the science of calculation with knowns”. 

According to Bhaskaracharya the science of calculation with unknowns is the source of

the science of calculation with knowns. 

The above problem is a Linear equation (equation where all the unknowns / variables are
of the first degree) with one unknown. Initially, Indian mathematicians used the method
of optional number to solve such problems which was later dropped. 

In this article let us look at some interesting problems on linear equations with one
unknown from Bhaskaracharya’s Lilavati. 

Let us solve the above problem: 

Let the number of bees in the colony be x. 

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Then, the number of bees that went to the Paatali flower will be x/6. 

The number of bees that went to the Kadamba tree will be x/3. 

The number of bees that went to the Mango tree will be x/4. 

The number of bees that went to the Champaka tree will be x/5. 

The number of bees that went to the Lotuses will be x/30. 

Thus, there were 60 bees in the colony. 

Let us now look at few more interesting problems from Lilavati. 

अमलकमलराशेस्त्र्यंशपंचांशषष्ठैः 

त्रिनयनहरिसूर्या येन तुर्येण चार्या । 

गुरुपदमथ षड्भिः पूजितं शेषपद्मैः । 

सकलकमलसंख्यां क्षिप्रमाख्याहि तस्य ॥५५॥ 

From a bunch of lotuses, one-third were offered to Lord Shiva (त्रिनयन), one-fifth to Lord
Vishnu (हरि), one-sixth to Surya Deva, one-fourth to the goddess. The remaining six were
offered to the Guru. Tell me quickly the number of lotuses in the bunch. 

Solution: 

Let the number of lotuses be x. 

Then, the number of lotuses offered to Lord Shiva will be x/3. 

The number of lotuses offered to Lord Vishnu will be x/5. 

The number of lotuses offered to Surya deva will be x/6. 

The number of lotuses offered to the Goddess will be x/4. 

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Thus, there were 120 lotuses in the bunch. 

Let us now look at one more interesting problem of the same type. 

यूथार्धं सत्रिभागं वन्विवरगतं कुं जराणं च दृष्टम् 

षड्भागश्चैव नध्यां पिबति च् सलिलं सप्तमांशेन मिश्रः । 

पद्मिन्यां चाष्टमांशः स्वनवमसहितः क् रीडते सानुरागो 

नागेन्द्रो हस्तिनीभिस्तिसृभिरनुगतः का भवेध्यूथसंख्या ॥५४॥ 

One-half and one-third of the half of a group of elephants went into a cave. One-sixth and
one-seventh of one-sixth were drinking water from a river. One-eighth and one-ninth of
one-eighth were playing in a pond full of lotuses. The king of elephants was walking with
three female elephants. Tell me how many elephants were there in the group? 

Solution: 

Let the number of elephants in the group be x. 

Then the number of elephants that went into the cave will be 

The number of elephants that were drinking water from

the river will be 

The number of elephants that were playing in the pond

of lotuses will be 

Thus, we have 

Solving this we get 

x = 1008 

Thus, there were 1008 elephants in the group. 

Bhaskaracharya and other ancient Indian

mathematicians included practical and fun-filled
examples in their texts to keep the students interested
in the subject. 

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Q3. Discuss the town planning of Harappan civilization. 

The town-planning of Harappan culture is one of its most impressive aspects, as though it
was the handiwork of a genius of an architect. Immaculate was the arrangement of the
city. In every aspect like roads, houses, drainage, bath, granary, the Harappan people
have left an imprint of originality and brilliance. Given below is an account of their town-
planning. 

Settlement Pattern: 

Town-planning was the prime specialty of the Harappan culture. Each town was divided
into two main parts. On higher ground was built the fort that housed the ruling class and
the priestly class. From the foot of the fort area was spread the human settlements of
other classes. People of many communities lived there. The town was encircled by a high
wall made of burnt bricks. The intention was probably to ward off invaders. The town
planning of Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Kalibangan was styled as per this pattern. 

Houses: 

The Harappan people used burnt bricks for constructing their house. The bricks had a
general proportion of 4:2:1. These burnt bricks were used in building the towns of
Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Rupar and Mehergarh etc. Of course exceptions are found in
certain cases. For examples, bricks dried in the sun were used in building houses at
Kalibangan. 

Normally, each house had a drawing room, bed-room and kitchen. Each had a spacious
verandah, a bath room and a well nearby. The waste-water was drained out of the house
into the main drain of the town. It speaks of their sense of health and hygiene. 

There are instances of double-storied buildings with stair­cases made of burnt bricks. Each
house was protected by high compound walls, probably, keep off wild animals. All these
are enough to show how praiseworthy their house-building plans were. 

Roads: 

Roads were very wide in Harappan townships, crisscrossing the town from east to west
and north to south. Each crossing was vertical, with provision of light-post on the
crossing. The houses were built on either side of the roads. The drains were connected to
the main drain that stretched to the farthest extent of the town. Commenting on the
Harappan roads, E.J.H. Mackay appreciated the fact that the straight wide roads with
vertical crossings acted as ventilators for the town and kept the town free of pollution
thereby. 

The Great Bath: 

The main attraction of the Harappan culture was the Great Bath, situated in the Fort-area.
The Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro comes as an interesting object of discovery of 12 metres
in length, 7 metres in breadth and 3 meters deep, the bath was located in a hall 55 metres

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long and 33 metres wide. The sides and floor were rock- hard. A stairway led to the bath. 

In an adjacent room was a big well, meant to supply water to the bath-pool. Separate sets
of drains were connected to the bath for in-let and out-let of water. A ring of rooms, both
big and small, as well as corridors were around the bath. On three sides of the bath were
galleries for spectators. This has led historians to believe that the Great Bath was for the
exclusive use of the ruling and priestly classes for extraordinary occasions like coronation
and different rituals. 

General Conference Hall or VIP Quarters: 

Adjacent to the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro was discovered a sprawling house, 230 feet
long and 78 feet wide, and with a 33 feet verandah attached to it. The house was propped
up by wooden pillars. Historians differ as to the purpose for which the house was built.
While some of them term it as the general conference hall, others describe it as the
residential quarters of high officials. 

Great Granary: 

Prominent among the Harappan buildings was the large granary. It was located in the
fort-area. Many stone floors formed it together. Each stone-floor was 16 metres long and 6
metres wide. To the south of the floor were rows of circular floors meant for harvesting.
No doubt, the granary was immensely useful in times of flood, storms and droughts. 

Hearth: 

Discovery of many hearths at Kalibangan is very significant. Seven ovens in a row on a

brick-laden floor are found there. Various opinions have been expressed by historians
about these. May be, these were used for general auspicious occasions. It is also possible
that it was the community-kitchen for the residents of the town. Yet its exact purpose still
remains a mystery. 

Drainage: 

The drainage system was the principal attraction of the Indus civilization. The people put
a lot of emphasis on hygiene. They took particular steps to drain out the waste water and
refuges out of the town. Big drains were dug on either side of the roads and burnt- bricks
were used in making these drains. The drains were covered, not exposed. These drains
passed through the town to the outskirts where they terminated in a big well. 

The small drains of each house were connected to the big drain across the front of the
house. Thus the waste-water and refuges of each house were drained out finally to the big
well outside the town. The system helped to prevent foul smell and pollution. Seldom is
seen such modem method of drainage in any other ancient civilization. 

In deed the town-planning of Harappan culture was highly modem and dignified. Big
wide roads and lighting system speak of their healthy civic life. The house-building, the
Great Bath, granary and drainage speak of the developed mode of living of the people of

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Harappa. 

Q4. Discuss The Elements of Urban Civilization in the Harappan Culture. 

The elements of urban civilisation in the Harappan Culture are as follows: 

Harappan civilisation was a Bronze Age culture which has been known to the world for its
urbanism. Very special for its planned cities, drainage system and use of kiln bricks for
making massive structures. 

This was the largest civilisation in geographical extent during its own period. Till now
thousands of sites have been discovered. Majority of sites are situated in India. 

According to recent discoveries, it has been found that the largest concentration of the
Harappan settlement was in the valley of river Saraswati and its tributary Drisadvati.
Another significant aspect of this culture was its well developed cottage industry and
craftsmanship which had made it one of the richest civilisations of the ancient world. A
number of cities excavated from coastal region have great significance in terms of
maritime trade. 

Lothal, situated in modern Gujarat was a port city where an artificial dockyard was made.
Dholavira, Balakot, Alhadino, Sutkakoh and Sutkagendor were other important port cities
which had a very important role in contemporary trade. From Lothal, Persian Gulf type
seals were also found. 

A number of Indian beads and seals have been discovered from the Mesopotamian cites
which are evidences of reciprocal trade. 

Many of the Indus cities have provided us a great number of seals. These seals were
insignia of ownership. These seals are also evidence of well developed trade economy.
Seals are also symbolic expression of their religious belief. These are the best examples of
Harappan craftsmanship. 

Chanhudaro, situated in Sindh, was a city famous for bead-making. Carnelian, lapis-
lasuli, etc. were used for making beads which were important items for export. From cities
like Balathal, Kalibangan, Mohanjodaro also we have got evidence of cottage industries. 

As far as technological development during Indus period is concerned, the use of Flemish
bond and English bond method was a great achievement of this period. Lost-wax-
technique was used for making bronze implements and statues. 

Masonic art was also well developed. Image of the priest from Mohanjodaro and nude
figure of dancing from Harappa have been found. Technical homogeneity and conceptual
uniformity in production was a very important aspect of Harappan made of production.
Homogeneity in production reveals the very fact that during this period there has evolved
a centralized system of decision making also. 

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It seems that around 2500 B.C. Harappan civilization reached its apex. But after 2000
B.C. use of seals, script, standardized weights and measures, kiln bricks were abandoned.
In cities small and shoddy dwellings were made even on roads and the concept of planned
city had become a subject of bygone era. 

These were some very serious signs of deterioration. Cities like Mohanjodaro and
Harappa also saw a gradual decline in urban planning and construction of houses. The
search for the causes of the decline of the Harappan civilization has moved in two
directions (i) that some natural calamity led to the collapse and that there was barbarian
invasion. 

Wheeler believed that the Indus civilization was destroyed by Aryan invaders. However, it
has been pointed out that Mohanjodaro was abandoned by about 1800 B.C. While Aryans
invaded India in 1500 B.C. 

Writers like Faisserus have tried to explain the decay of the Harappan civilization in terms
of ecological problems. Perhaps over grazing and over exploitation of forest resources
caused the virtual decline. But the enduring fertility of soil of this area disproves this
hypothesis. Tectonic eruption has been suggested as another reason responsible for the
decay. Regular flood changes in the course of rivers and over ciltation by rivers in the
Arabean Sea are some of the other views related with the decline. 

Latest study of Post-Harappan settlement at Kalibangan, Kunal, Kumtari, Rakigarhi,

Dholavira, Desalpur and Rangpur made it very clear that great traditions vanished but
little traditions continued. So there was not a virtual decline but a transformation in
economy which had become once again a rural one. 

Q5. Throw light on the glass technology in Ancient India. 

The term, glass, includes a wide range of products, which are characterized mainly by
their desired rate of cooling from a state of fusion to a solid state in such a way that it does
not undergo crystallization. Generally glass is produced by melting a mixture of silica
(sand: about 10%) with the required calcium compounds (lime: about 10%), and some
metallic oxides are added as colouring agents. 

In this monograph the authors have discussed the occurrence and manufacture of glass in
ancient India, in the backdrop of the world history of glass. 

The first chapter out of the five in which the book is divided deals with the historical
background of ancient glass. In addition the chapter deals extensively with the general
characteristics, the properties, compositions and processes involved in the manufacture of
ancient glass. The authors do not wish to evaluate or analyse the history, rather they
present it as it is generally accepted, along with its unsolved questions. They tell us that
glass was discovered around 1500 B.C. in Egypt as a development from faience to glaze to
glass. On the other hand, glass making in the Far East may be traced back to the sixth
century B.C. 

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The global backdrop given by the authors is however weak. The correct position is that the
Egyptians and ancient Assyrians had glass-makers even in the third millennium BC. Glass
beads have been found in the cemeteries of Ur III (c. 2100 BC.) and also at Assur under
the Ziggurat (c. 1800 BC.) in Mesopotamia. There is archaeological evidence to indicate
that there were glass-producing factories in Egypt during the XVIII Dynasty in the reign
of Amenhotep II (1448-1420 BC.). At Tell el Amarna (1450-1400 BC.) the remains of a
glass house and fragments of glass in several stages of manufacture have been found.
There is a series of Assyrian clay tablets from the library of Assurbanipal (seventh century
BC.) which provide details of glass-making at that time. But the glass industry matured
only during the Graeco-Roman times, specially by the Romans who were well versed in
the art of glass-blowing and sheet-making (Subbarayappa 1999). 

The remaining chapters deal in glass with regard to its occurrence in India. The second
chapter deals with the literary and archaeological evidence of glass in ancient India. The
authors point out that mention of glass Kanch or Kacais profuse in the ancient texts going
back to 1200 B.C., or perhaps even further beyond. The Vedic text, Satapatha
Brahmana refers in a general way to Kaca, the Sanskrit term used for glass. Under this
brief section of the literary sources the authors have only considered the ancient
Sanskritic texts with a view to establish the antiquity of glass works in India. It was,
however, in the three or four centuries before and after the Christian era that Indian glass
industry began to gain momentum. The rest of the chapter informs us in detail about the
archaeological evidence with regard to the antiquity of glass in India. The archaeological
excavations in Brahmapuri and Kolhapuri in Maharastra State (second century BC –
second century AD) reveal that there was also a glass noted for its drawn beads which
were generally cylindrical in form. Even in the sixteenth-seventeenth century AD, the
Portuguese used to trade in these glass objects with East Africa. In the Deccan, some
Satavahana sites have yielded folded beads, twisted beads as well as cane-glass beads;
Arikamedu, Nevasa, Ter, Prakash etc., were well known for the cane-glass beads. 

We are told in the third chapter that despite the wealth of ancient archaeological
specimens of glass in India the scientific studies thereof are very inadequate. In contrast,
the chemical studies of Indian glass specimens have been carried out in some detail.
These physical studies help in forming an idea of the processes involved in producing the
glass that it is. The monograph gives due credence to Sana Ullah who was the first to carry
out the chemical studies of the ancient glass objects in India after Neumann took up to
study the chemical composition of the glass objects in Europe. The detailed results of such
study in India are reproduced in the monograph. 

Indian glass-makers had adequate expertise in the fabrication of beads, bangles and a few
other types. On the basis of various objects excavated at different sites, it may be inferred
that the glass-makers employed such methods as moulding, folding, twisting and double-
stripping. Possibly, what is known as wire-winding method was also for preparing beads
of different types. The beads found at Brahmapuri indicate that they were probably made
by this method by coiling the fused glass rod around a wire or spoke, and twirling it to
obtain the desired shapes. The technique of preparing what are called the ‘multiple-

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wound beads’ of opaque glass of different colours was also known. Bangles, both
monochrome and polychrome, were produced with great care. Certain patterns were also
imposed on them by skilful methods. As regards flasks, bowls and even bottles which are
found in some archaeological sites, they were by and large, made in the Mediterranean
(Roman) region with which India had commercial contacts from ancient times. Likewise,
the milleflori (Latin word meaning ‘thousand flowers’) glass with flowery designs, found
near Taxila and Ahicchatra (UP) seem to be of Roman origin. It may be noted that the
milleflori technique was a flourishing one specially in Venice. In the medieval period, the
artistic glass specimens of the Mughal period show the Persian influence inasmuch as
Persian glass-makers came to India with their craftsmanship and were engaged in the
production of glass dishes and dish covers, spittoons, flat-bottomed vessels, mirrors and
other objects like tiles and ear reels. But glass-tiles appeared in India even as early as the
third century BC during the reign of Asoka. 

The book gives a summary of archaeological evidence of early glass from various
excavated sites. The main ones are: 

AHAR, AHAD, Rajasthan 

Glass objects, discovered from Ahar, are beads and bangles. Out of five beads, two are of
plain translucent variety; two of tabular cuprous glass (Period II – 3rd century BC) and
the fifth of opaque green colour. The first two show pulled bubbles and have a very rough
surface. They are short tabular, barrel and globular. Four pieces of glass bangles have
been discovered. All of them are of monochrome category. Of the four pieces, two came
from the phase Ic (Period II) and two were from surface collection. These bangles are of
two types – those belonging to phase Ic are plano-convex, and those of surface collections
show a triangular section. The colour of these glass bangles varies from turquoise blue,
sea-green to milky-white. All these bangles are found to be translucent and full of bubbles.
The technique employed for making these bangles was rather crude as indicated by the
uneven thickness. Due to the leaching out of the alkalis, the bangle pieces are covered
with a whitish filmy patina. 

AHICCHATRA, Uttar Pradesh 

The glass objects that have been unearthed at Ahicchatra are mainly beads, distributed
practically among all the strata. Their dating extends from c. 300 B.C. to 1100 A.D. More
than one hundred glass beads were recovered from excavations, besides several others
from surface collections. 

Period II of the site shows the occurrence of the Painted Grey Ware and black-slipped,
black-and red and plain red wares. Among other finds of this period mention may be
made of vitreous paste and beads of glass. The dating of period II may be regarded as
representing a late phase of the Painted Grey Ware culture. 

BROACH, Gujarat 

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The town-mound at Broach, the ancient Bharukachha of Indian literature and Barygaza of
the classical geographers, was excavated by the Western circle of the Department of the
Archaeological Survey of India. The occupation of the site may be divided into three
periods. Period I (3rd century B.C.) yielded glass beads in association with the beads of
semi-precious stones, agate, chert, chalcedony and jasper. 

ERAN, Madhya Pradesh 

Eran (ancient Airkina) is situated in the district of Sagar. Three mounds, namely ERN-I to
ERN-3, were excavated by the University of Sagar. Periods III (1st century to the 5th
century) and IV (16th to 18th century AD) were found to be rich in glass beads and glass
bangles respectively. 

HASTINAPUR, Uttar Pradesh 

This site is one of the earliest from where glass has been reported.The occurrence of glass
bangles from period II (1100-800 B.C.) is therefore noteworthy. 

MAHESWAR AND NAVDATOLI, Madhya Pradesh 

Beads. Several fragmentary and eleven intact specimens of glass beads were recovered
from Maheswar. Of the intact ones, eight came from layers of Phase VI (100-500 A.D.),
two from phase V (100 B.C.-100 A.D.) and one from Phase VII (Muslim-Maratha period).
They show a wide range of shapes such as spherical, truncated barrel, globular,
hexagonal, cylindrical and irregularly circular. Their colours are deep blue, deep green,
yellow, sea-green and soiled white. 

Bangles. Bangles are both monochrome and polychrome, the former being more
abundant than the latter. Of the monochrome type six hundred and seventy-three pieces
were recovered, of which fifty-three came from Navdatoli trenches. Of the bangles
unearthed from Maheshwar, 95 per cent came from Phase VI. 

NEVASA, Madhya Pradesh 

About 350 glass beads were recovered mostly from Phase V (50 B.C.-200 A.D.) which
represents the most flourishing period in the history of Nevasa. Besides the colouring of
glass, these beads reveal various techniques of glass and bead manufacture. 

PAIYAMPALLI, Tamil Nadu 

The excavation at Paiyampalli in the district of North Arcot was carried out under the
guidance of S.R. Rao in 1964. The work has brought to light the glass beads and bangles of
two cultural periods, namely the Neolithic (Period I, 1390±200 B.C.) and megalithic
(Period II, 315±100 B.C). 

PRAKASH, Maharashtra 

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Forty-five glass bangles have been recovered from Phase II (6th – 1st century B.C.), Phase
III (2nd century B.C. – 6th century A.D.), and Phase IV (6th to 11th century A.D.) and also
from an unstratified deposit. The occurrence of monochrome glass bangles during the
pre-Christian era is noteworthy in this connection. 

SULUR, Kerala 

About 148 beads have been found in the middens near the megalithic tombs at Sulur.
They are of green (72), red (29), black (11), blue (24), blue zon (1), yellow (3), opaque
orange (1), imitation garnet (2), pale brown (1) white (1), clear (2) and corroded (1) glass. 

TAXILA, Pakistan 

According to Beck, there is no evidence of glass at Taxila before the 7th and 6th century
B.C. The glass objects that have been recovered from Taxila comprise beads, bangles,
small vessels, tiles and some miscellaneous articles. The glass beads from the fourth
stratum of the Bhir Mound (c. 5th century B.C.) are twenty-five in number. Most of the
beads are colourless and iridescent. Those that are coloured are blue, black, green, very
dark green, grey, opal white, amber, etc. Two more glass objects, other than beads, which
came from the same stratum are an ear-ornament decorated with a rosette on one side
and a part of a miniature casket. Both were made of a fine variety of black or very dark
green glass, which has the appearance of obsidian and is free from quartz grains or other
impurities. The glass beads found in stratum III (c. 4th century B.C.) are 217 in number. 

UJJAIN, Madhya Pradesh 

The excavation at Ujjain, in Central India, yielded a number of glass beads, ear-reels and
bangles belonging to the period c. 500 B.C. to 1st century A.D. Of the few ear-reels, the
most interesting feature on one specimen is the decoration of impressed coils
representing ‘eyes’; the decoration appears on one side only. A squarish seal resembling a
specimen from Maheswar, is of black glass with a green tinge and bears on one side the
symbol of an elephant. The specimen appears to be of 300 B.C. 

The authors tell us that though glasswares have been unearthed from various
archaeological sites in India yet the findings do not help in recreating the technology in
the past. The authors say that the glass making in India did not advance beyond the first
and the very rudimentary stage. The furnaces that were used could not produce heat in
excess of 10000 C. Moulding was one of the techniques used in India for the production of
glass objects. Blowing was introduced in India towards the end of the first century. 

The chemical analyses of glass objects found in over 15 sites of different parts of India
indicate that the Indian glass-makers knew the importance of metallic oxides or other
compounds for imparting the desired colours to the glass objects. Minerals containing
iron like haematite, copper, cobalt, managanese, aluminium or lead were used along with
the silicates in a desired way and in appropriate quantity for the production of various
types of glass beads, bangles, tiles and bottles. The monograph is full of useful technical

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details, with chemical tables of the glass objects found in India. Tables of archaeological
objects found are also given. It is a work that more or less presents the status of research
in ancient glass objects in India. 

We would like to end the review with some very perceptive remarks by Subbrayappa. He
says, 

In India, however, glass did not have a social value similar to that of metals and pottery
which was preferred to glass vessels in some religious functions, and in iatro-chemical
practices as well. There was commercial contact, now and then, between India and the
Greco-Roman world. The foreign glass objects found at Arikamedu (first – second century
AD) reveal not only such contacts but also their wide use in the Greco-Roman culture. Yet,
glass played an insignificant role in the Indian socio-cultural life.
The rasavadins (alchemical-cum-medicinal chemists) did not somehow choose to employ
always glass vessels for their chemical operations involving distillation, steaming, mild
heating and the like. Their apparatus was by and large earthen which did not permit them
to observe the way in which the chemical processes as well as the fabrication of glass
apparatus, like those which placed chemistry on a solid foundation in the West in the 18th
century. Around this time the West had developed what are known as tank furnaces for
large-scale commercial production of glass. The fabricating methods were also
standardized; more importantly, by using the finest raw materials – silica and compounds
of sodium, magnesium as well as calcium, and, employing the pot method, optical glass
having a required degree of hardness, desired refraction and dispersive powers, was
produced. Lenses, prisms, mirrors, glass tubes and vessels played a notable role in the
new experimental methods that led to the growth of physics, chemistry and biology in the
West. In Indian ethos, however, the importance of glass was hardly recognized
(Subbarayappa 1999). 

Q6. Discuss the Shulva Science. 

Geometry in Vedic Age- Sulvasutras or Sulbasutras 

 

Some scholars have shown on the basis of evidence in Shatapatha Brahmana that Indian
geometry predates Greek geometry by centuries. It has been argued that Geometry and
Mathematics had a ritualistic beginning in India centuries before Greeks or Babylon. In
these rituals, Earth was represented by Circular altar and heavens were represented in
Squar altar. There were eagle shaped altars also. The examples are as follows: 

The Ritual consisted of coverting the Circle into a square of identical area. As per a paper
by Seidenberg: Babylonia [1700 BC] got the theorem of Pythagoras from India or that
both Old-Babylonia and India got it from a third source. The source quoted was
Sulvasutras. 

Sulvasutras deal with complex fire altars of various shapes constructed with bricks of
specific shapes and area: the total area of the altar must always be carefully respected.
This proves that despite of no existance of algebra, there was an awareness of precise

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purely geometrical calculations. 

Seidenberg’s conclusion of India being the source of

the geometric and mathematical knowledge of the
ancient world has been included now in chronology of
the texts. Please note that Sulva sutras belong to a
bigger text Shrauta Sutras. The four major Sulva
Sutras, which are mathematically the most significant,
are those composed by Baudhayana, Manava,
Apastamba and Katyayana. Out of them the oldest belongs
to Baudhayana and dates back to 600BC. They discuss the cases
of the Pythagorean Theorem and Pythagorean triples. 

The Baudhayan Sulbasutra 1.48 says: The diagonal of a rectangle

produces both areas produced seperately by its two sides.It is
represented as follows 

In the Baudhayan’s Sulva Sutras we should note that the Right

angles were made by ropes marked to give the triads 3, 4, 5 and 5,
12, 13 (32 + 42 = 52, 52 + 122 = 132) J 

Sulva Sutra also mentions a ritual which included “Squaring the

circle” (and vice-versa), thus geometrically constructing a square
having the same area as a given area. It has worked out the square
root of 2 to 1.414215, up to last 5 decimals. 

Q7. Throw light on the achievements related to the metallurgy of Indus

culture. 

The use of metals marks major epochs in the history of any culture. The Bronze Age in
India began around 3000 BCE in the Indus Valley region. The ancient cities of the Indus
Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BCE) were part of India’s Bronze Age. The Indus Valley
Civilization, also called the Mature Harappan phase, is merely the most well-known
period of the Indus Valley Tradition (7500-300 BCE), which began with Neolithic (i.e.,
New Stone Age) settlements, such as in Birrana, Haryana (c. 7500 BCE) and Mehrgarh in
Baluchistan, Pakistan (c. 6750 BCE). Another group of Bronze Age nomadic tribes, the
Indo-Aryans, were believed to have entered the subcontinent in the second millennium
BCE, contributing, in some versions, to the decline of these cities; the Indo-Aryans settled
down in what is today Punjab and Haryana (where they composed the Ṛg Veda), slowly

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moving eastward and eventually founding their own cities on the Gangetic plains, in what
is known as the Gangetic Tradition. These Indo-Aryans were also supposed to have begun
India’s Iron Age around 1000 BCE. 

Although archaeologists now overwhelmingly agree there is no evidence of such an

invasion or migration, and inspite of it being based almost exclusively on unverified
philological arguments, the supposed advent of Indo-Aryans continues to be the norm in
academic discourse, is what is taught in textbooks, and guides prevailing constructs of
ancient Indian history, such as a supposed culture shift that I had tried to examine earlier.
Here, I try to look at India’s history from a more technological perspective. The picture
that emerges shall not only leave us much better informed about India’s ancient history,
but may undo our current simplistic notions of Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages. 

The implications for the dating of the Vedas and other ancient texts 

Estimates for the dates of the composition of the Ṛg Veda vary from 1900 to 1200 BCE.
The term, ayas, occurring in the Ṛg Veda has been interpreted as copper. Scholars also
believe that the term, kṛṣṇa ayas, which occurs in the Yajur and Atharva Vedas, but not
the Ṛg, means iron, and implies that the Yajus and Atharva belong to the Iron Age, and
hence were composed after 1000 BCE. The events described in the Mahābhārata too are
ascribed to the Iron Age. Thus, when, how and where metals like copper and iron came to
be used on the subcontinent could inform our understanding of ancient India.   

The bronze technology of the Harappans 

Copper ore was abundantly available to the Harappans from the Aravalli ranges and the
Chagai region of Baluchistan. Copper, however, is a difficult metal to smelt. Alloying even
a small amount of tin with copper makes for a melt that is more fluid, and significantly
reduces air entrapment; thus, the casting process becomes much easier, and the products
are of higher quality. The resulting bronze is stronger and harder than either metal. Early
on, ancient people alloyed copper with phosphorus or arsenic (whose fumes are toxic),
but realised that tin was far more advantageous, and tin-bronzes incomparably superior.
The use of tin to make bronzes was a major technological advancement. Today, we tend to
use the term bronze only for an alloy of copper and tin. 

Like other ancient cultures, the Harappans too switched to tin-bronzes in the second half
of the third millennium BCE. The tin content in Harappan bronzes varied from 1-2 per
cent to as high as 8-12 per cent. A higher tin content results in greater hardness.
Interestingly, objects which required hardness, like knives and axes, had high proportions
of tin, whereas common objects for which hardness was not particularly required had
lower amounts of tin. This implies that the tin contents in the bronzes may have been
varied purposely according to function by the Harappan metal-workers. 

Tin contents above about 11 per cent raise a further exciting possibility. Such bronzes are
what are technically called “polyphase”. The properties of a polyphase alloy can be
manipulated by heat-treatment to obtain a desired combination of strength and hardness.
Indeed, the fact that objects like knives and axes – which need excellent mechanical

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properties – have been found to have as much as 12 per cent of tin raises the question if
the Indus Valley smiths had mastered this technology too. To throw more light on such
questions, a detailed technical analysis of the Harappan bronzes is called for. In later
centuries, the Indians would develop remarkable steel technology, best exemplified by the
(wrongly-named) Damascene swords, which combined toughness with sharp edges, made
by carefully engineering the iron-carbon phases. It would be no surprise if it emerged that
this steel technology was the natural progression of metallurgical knowledge developed
during the Indus Valley Civilization period. 

The dog in the night-time: the curious case of tin  

With the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, the use of tin stops too. Tin does not
occur in the copper-base articles found in the subsequent Copper Hoard cultures, or in
the Painted Grey Ware sites. Both these post-Harappan cultures have for long been
associated with the incoming Indo-Aryans. However, there is a slight problem. As one of
the greatest authorities on the Indus Valley Tradition, J. M. Kenoyer asks,  

“…the northwestern regions were the source of the movements of the so-called Indo
Aryan speaking people. Yet, if there were such movements, why did the migrants not
supply one of the most important raw materials for bronze production, i.e. tin? … Such a
long break in tin acquisition is important because it would reflect the lack of contact with
the regions of Baluchistan and Northern Afghanistan…” 

Was the Harappans’ bronze technology indigenous? 

Did the Harappans learn bronze-making from other Bronze Age Central Asian cultures,
and obtain their tin from there? The greater likelihood is that they discovered the
naturally occurring tin ore near the copper deposits of the Chagai district of Baluchistan
itself that were already familiar to them. As tin melts at a very low temperature (232 °C),
it may have been accidentally discovered by potters. 

This may also explain why the use of tin declines after the Mature Harappan phase. Once
their culture went into decline in the Sarasvati-Indus valley owing to climatological
reasons, and the locus of activity shifted slowly eastward towards the Gangetic plain,
contact with Baluchistan tapered off. Copper, however, continued to be available from the
Aravallis. It was probably the non-availability of tin and the consequent difficulty in
making bronze that, at least partly, triggered an increasing reliance on iron. 

Q8. Write a note on the Astronomy as described in the Vedic Literature. 

astDownload

Q9. Discuss the development of Geometry in Ancient India. 

Early History of Geometry 

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Geometry is all around us – from the repeating pattern of the Moon’s orbit to the complex
shapes found in a spiderweb. Ancient people certainly saw these things and many more,
and came up with rules to measure and explain what they saw. Geometry is the branch
of mathematics that studies shapes and their relationships to each other. 

More than 5000 years ago, in the valley of the Nile river, we know that Egyptian scholars
were already using the principles of geometry to survey land and construct complex
structures like the great pyramids. 

Even before this time, people in various parts of the world used basic geometrical ideas to
map their lands and construct their homes. In fact, the word ‘geometry’ comes from the
Greek word geometrein, meaning Earth measuring. Although it has evolved to include
many types of more abstract measurements, geometry arose from these early
measurement systems. 

Because the study of geometry arose from the simple observations and measurements, it
developed independently in many cultures in the ancient world. Some of the most famous
early forms of geometry were developed in Greece, India, and China. 

Greek Geometry 

While the Egyptians and other ancient cultures developed many useful geometry rules,
they did not attempt to expand their knowledge of geometry. Later, Greek philosophers
and mathematicians like Thales, Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes, would take on this
challenge. 

Thales, who lived in the 5th century B.C.E, was the first person to use deductive reasoning
to prove mathematical relationships. Because of this, he made many contributions to the
development of geometry. 

Pythagoras, who lived at about the same time, expanded on the ideas of Thales. Among
other things, he proved that the three interior angles of a triangle will always add to give
180 degrees. He also proved the famous theorem that bears his name even now, the
Pythagorean theorem, which demonstrates the relationship between the sides of a right
triangle and the hypotenuse. 

The Pythagorean theorem, which was developed independently by many different

cultures, states that the sum of the squares of the sides of a right triangle is equal to the
square of the hypotenuse 

In the 3rd century B.C.E, Euclid of Alexandria wrote a series of books known as The
Elements of Geometry or just The Elements. In this revolutionary work, he laid out many
of the axioms of geometry that we still use today, such as the principle that any two points
can be joined by a straight line, and all right angles are equal to each other. 

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Euclid’s books were so popular that The
Elements became the most important
mathematical textbook throughout the
Western world for the next 2000 years. Even
now, we still call the geometry of flat
surfaces Euclidean geometry because it
was first explained by Euclid! 

A copy of The Elements from the middle ages 

Archimedes, who lived in the 2nd century

B.C.E., was one of the most important
scientists, inventors, and mathematicians who
ever lived. Among his many contributions to
mathematics, he invented an early form of coordinate geometry. 

Indian Geometry 

Centuries before the axioms of Euclidean geometry were proven and recorded by the
ancient Greeks, people were using geometry to construct elaborate ceremonial altars to
the Hindu gods throughout the Indian subcontinent. 

Instructions used to construct these alters were recorded in a series of books called
the Sulba Sutras. While developing processes for more and more complex altar
construction, the writers of the Sulba Sutras developed a method for calculating the
mathematical constant pi, estimated the square root of two, and wrote down the earliest
known statement of what would later come to be known as the Pythagorean theorem
hundreds of years before Pythagoras was even born! 

The Sulba Sutras also describe ways to create various geometric shapes with the same
area. For example, using these geometrical principles, it was possible to make a circle,
square, and rectangle that each had the same area. 

In the Bakhshali manuscript, there is a handful of geometric problems (including

problems about volumes of irregular solids). The Bakhshali manuscript also “employs a
decimal place value system with a dot for zero.” Aryabhata’s Aryabhatiya (499) includes
the computation of areas and volumes. 

Brahmagupta wrote his astronomical work Brāhma Sphuṭa Siddhānta in 628. Chapter 12,

containing 66 Sanskrit verses, was divided into two sections: “basic operations” (including
cube roots, fractions, ratio and proportion, and barter) and “practical mathematics”
(including mixture, mathematical series, plane figures, stacking bricks, sawing of timber,
and piling of grain). In the latter section, he stated his famous theorem on the diagonals
of a cyclic quadrilateral: 

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Brahmagupta’s theorem: If a cyclic quadrilateral has diagonals that
are perpendicular to each other, then the perpendicular line drawn from the point of
intersection of the diagonals to any side of the quadrilateral always bisects the opposite
side. 

Chapter 12 also included a formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral (a generalization
of Heron’s formula), as well as a complete description of rational triangles (i.e. triangles
with rational sides and rational areas). 

Brahmagupta’s formula: The area, A, of a cyclic quadrilateral with sides of

lengths a, b, c, d, respectively, is given by  

where s, the semiperimeter, given by:   

 

Brahmagupta’s Theorem on rational triangles: A triangle with rational sides a,b,c

and rational area is of the form: 

For some rational numbers u, v and w. 

Q10. Write a note on the contribution of Varahamihira in Science. 

Astrologer, astronomer, and polymath Varahamihira, born in c. 505 and passed away in c.
587, also known as Varaha or Mihira, was an ancient Indian who resided in Ujjain
(Madhya Pradesh, India). He was born to Adityadasa at Kayatha, in the Avanti region,
which roughly corresponds to present-day Malwa (a region of Madhya Pradesh, India). In
one of his own writings, he claims to have attended Kapitthaka for his education.
According to Indian traditions, he was one of the “Nine Jewels” (Navaratnas) at the court
of Malwa king Yashodharman Vikramaditya. This assertion, however, is made for the first
time in a significantly later text, and scholars question its veracity because neither
Varahamihira nor Vikramaditya existed in the same century, nor did Varahamihira live
during the same century as many of the other individuals in the list of the “nine jewels,”
such as the far older Kalidasa. 

About Varahamihira 

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The Brihat Samhita, an exhaustive study on architecture, temples, planetary motions,
eclipses, timekeeping, astrology, seasons, cloud formation, rainfall, agriculture,
mathematics, gemology, perfumes, and many other themes, was one of Varahamihira’s
most famous works. Varahamihira claims that while he summarised prior works on
astronomy, the Shilpa Sastra, and temple building in some verses, his exposition of many
design theories and models is among the earliest texts to have survived. The Persian
traveller and scholar Al Biruni quoted passages from the Brihat Samhita and lyrics from
Varahamihira. In addition, Varahamihira is credited with authoring a number of
reputable works on astrology and astronomy. He studied Greek, and in his writing, he
lauded the Greeks (Yavanas) for being “highly schooled in the sciences,” while being
impure in terms of the religious order. According to some academics, he is a strong
candidate for understanding and popularising the zodiac signs, astrological calculations,
and predictions for auspicious rituals. 

Works of Varahamihira 

Pancha-Siddhantika 

The Pancasiddhantika, or “Treatise on the Five Astronomical Canons,” is Varahamihira’s

most important work and provides details on earlier Indian works that are now lost. It
was written around 575 CE. The work is a summary of five preceding works on
mathematical astronomy by five writers, including the Surya Siddhanta, Romaka
Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta, Vasishtha Siddhanta, and Pitamaha Siddhanta. It is a
compilation of Hellenistic and Vedanga Jyotisha astronomy (having Greek, Egyptian and
Roman elements). Varahamihira was the first person to state that the equinox shifts by
50.32 arc seconds per year, or the Ayana. 

Indians have five Siddhantas: 

1. Surya-Siddhanta, the Sun’s Siddhanta, was assumed to have been penned by

Latadeva, but was actually created by Mayasura, also known as Mamuni Mayan, as
stipulated in the text itself. 

2. Vishnucandra authored Vasishtha-siddhanta, named after one of the Great Bear’s

stars. 

3. Paulisa-Siddhanta, named after Paulisa of Saintra, was composed by Paulisa. 

6. The name Romaka-Siddhanta comes from Srishena’s Rum. 

7. Paitahama-Siddhanta. 

Brihat-Samhita 

Varahamihira’s encyclopaedic Brihat-Samhita is another significant addition. Even

though the book focuses primarily on divination, it also covers a wide range of other
topics. It encompasses a wide range of human interests, such as astronomy, planetary
motions, eclipses, rainfall, clouds, architecture, crop development, perfume

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manufacturing, matrimony, and household interactions. The book expands on the Garuda
Purana’s gemstone appraisal criterion and the hallowed Nine Pearls from the same
literature. It is known as the “great compilation” because it has 106 chapters. 

On Astrology 

Mihira’s most famous astrological work is Hora Shastra or Brihadjathaka. It is largely

written in code language. For this book, more than a dozen commentaries have been
composed. The Brihadjathaka is the foundation of the Kerala School of Astrology. His son
Prithuyasas also made contributions to Hindu astrology; his work Hora Sara is well-
known in the field of horoscope. Khana (also known as Lilavati in other places), a
medieval Bengali poet and astrologer, is thought to be Varahamihira’s daughter-in-law. 

Influences 

Varahamihira’s philosophy was influenced by two Western works: the Romaka Siddhanta
(“The Doctrine of the Romans”) and the Paulisa Siddhanta. The Paulisa Siddhanta is
frequently misunderstood as a single composition ascribed to Paul of Alexandria (c. 378
CE). Other researchers in the field, however, have dismissed this theory, most notably
David Pingree, who declared that “…the identification of Paulus Alexandrinus with the
author of the Paulia Siddhanta is totally false”.  A few of his works are related to earlier
texts such as Vedanga Jyotisha. 

Contributions of Varahamihira 

Trigonometry 

Varahamihira enhanced the precision of Aryabhata’s sine tables. 

Combinatorics 

He discovered the first 4×4 magic square. 

Optics 

Varahamihira’s contribution to physics includes his assertion that reflection is generated

by particle backscattering and refraction (the change in direction of a light ray as it moves
from one medium into the other) by the particles’ capability to penetrate internal spaces
of the medium, similar to fluids moving through porous items. 

Q11. What is Adhimasa? 

Adhika-masa, also called the Adhik-mas, Mala-masa, and the Purushottama-

masa, is an intercalated month in the Hindu calendar that is inserted to keep the lunar
calendar aligned with the months of the year. The adhika-masa is an extra lunar month
added to the solar calendar every three years so that the lunar and the solar years are
synchronised, along with the agricultural cycle and seasons. 

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Adhikamāsa, Adhimāsa literally means ‘intercalary month’. 

From the most ancient times, all religious activities were performed at times considered
auspicious or suitable for them. Calculations were done based on the movements of the
Sun, the Moon, the planets and the stars. This resulted in the growth of an entire science
of Vedic Astronomy called as ‘Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa’. 

The most fundamental periods of time, common to all the nations are the day, the month
and the year. 

The day is due to the revolution of the Earth round its axis. 
The month is mainly a lunar phenomenon based on the waxing and waning of the
moon. 
The year is due to the apparent motion of the sun as seen from the Earth. 

Hence a luni-solar calendar from the ancient times is being followed. Due to the two ways
of calculating, there occurs a difference. Hence a necessary adjustment is to be made to
bring the two into consonance. The lunar year on which all the religious activities are
based, is less than the solar year by about eleven days. Hence two intercalary months are
added in five years, one being a second Āṣāḍha (the 4th lunar month) at the end of 2 V2
years and a second Pauṣa (the 10th lunar month) at the end of another 2 V2 years. This is
according to Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa. 

Later works give varying periods after which the intercalary month occurs. The general
rule seems to be that the lunar month in which no saṅkrānti (apparent movement of the
sun from one constellation to the next, as seen from the earth) occurs, is called as an
adhikamāsa and bears the same name of the next lunar month which is called śuddha or
nija or prākrta, to distinguish it from the former. 

Somehow, even from the ancient times, the adhikamāsa was considered inauspicious and
hence named malamāsa (‘the dirty month’), malimluca (‘a thief), aiñhaspati (‘the lord of
sins’) and so on. During this month one was advised to avoid acts like consecrating Vedic
fires, installing images, offering gifts, observing vratas or religious vows, performing
upanayana and other samskāras. 

Q12. Write a note on ‘Bakshali Manuscript’. 

The Bakhshali manuscript is an ancient mathematical text written on birch bark that

was found in 1881 in the village of Bakhshali, Mardan (near Peshawar in present-
day Pakistan, historical Gandhara). It is perhaps “the oldest extant manuscript in Indian
mathematics.” For some portions a carbon-date was proposed of AD 224–383 while for
other portions a carbon-date as late as AD 885–993 in a recent study, but the dating has
been criticised by specialists on methodological grounds. The manuscript contains the
earliest known Indian use of a zero symbol. It is written in a form of
literary Sanskrit influenced by contemporary dialects. 

Discovery 

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The manuscript was unearthed in British India from a field in 1881, by a peasant in the
village of Bakhshali, which is near Mardan, in present-day Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The first research on the manuscript was done by A. F. R.
Hoernlé. After his death, it was examined by G. R. Kaye, who edited the work and
published it as a book in 1927. 

The extant manuscript is incomplete, consisting of seventy leaves of birch bark, whose

intended order is not known. It is kept at the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford,
though folio are periodically loaned to museums. 

Contents 

The manuscript is a compendium of rules and illustrative examples. Each example is

stated as a problem, the solution is described, and it is verified that the problem has been
solved. The sample problems are in verse and the commentary is in prose associated with
calculations. The problems involve arithmetic, algebra and geometry,
including mensuration. The topics covered include fractions, square
roots, arithmetic and geometric progressions, solutions of simple equations, simultaneous
linear equations, quadratic equations and indeterminate equations of the second degree. 

Composition 

The manuscript is written in an earlier form of Sharada script, a script which is known for
having been in use mainly from the 8th to the 12th century in the northwestern part of
South Asia, such as Kashmir and neighbouring regions. The language of the
manuscript, though intended to be Sanskrit, was significantly influenced in its phonetics
and morphology by a local dialect or dialects, and some of the resultant linguistic
peculiarities of the text are shared with Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. The overlying dialects,
though sharing affinities with Apabhraṃśa and with Old Kashmiri, have not been
identified precisely. It is probable that most of the rules and examples had been originally
composed in Sanskrit, while one of the sections was written entirely in a dialect. It is
possible that the manuscript might be a compilation of fragments from different works
composed in a number of language varieties. Hayashi admits that some of the
irregularities are due to errors by scribes or may be orthographical. 

A colophon to one of the sections states that it was written by a brahmin identified as “the
son of Chajaka“, a “king of calculators,” for the use of Vasiṣṭha’s son Hasika. The brahmin
might have been the author of the commentary as well as the scribe of the
manuscript. Near the colophon appears a broken word rtikāvati, which has been
interpreted as the place Mārtikāvata mentioned by Varāhamihira as being in
northwestern India (along with Takṣaśilā, Gandhāra etc.), the supposed place where the
manuscript might have been written. 

Mathematics 

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The manuscript is a compilation of mathematical rules and examples (in verse), and prose
commentaries on these verses. Typically, a rule is given, with one or more examples,
where each example is followed by a “statement” (nyāsa / sthāpanā) of the example’s
numerical information in tabular form, then a computation that works out the example by
following the rule step-by-step while quoting it, and finally a verification to confirm that
the solution satisfies the problem. This is a style similar to that of Bhāskara I’s
commentary on the gaṇita (mathematics) chapter of the Āryabhaṭīya, including the
emphasis on verification that became obsolete in later works. 

The rules are algorithms and techniques for a variety of problems, such as systems of

linear equations, quadratic equations, arithmetic progressions and arithmetico-geometric
series, computing square roots approximately, dealing with negative numbers (profit and
loss), measurement such as of the fineness of gold, etc. 

Mathematical context 

Scholar Takao Hayashi has compared the text of the manuscript with several Sanskrit
texts. He mentions that a passage is a verbatim quote from Mahabharata. He discusses
similar passages in Ramayana, Vayupurana, Lokaprakasha of Kshemendra etc. Some of
the mathematical rules also appear
in Aryabhatiya of Aryabhatta, Aryabhatiyabhashya of Bhaskara
I, Patiganita and Trairashika of Sridhara, Ganitasarasamgraha of Mahavira,
and Lilavati and Bijaganita of Bhaskara II. An unnamed manuscript, later than Thakkar
Pheru, in the Patan Jain library, a compilation of mathematical rules from various sources
resembles the Bakhshali manuscript, contains data in an example which are strikingly
similar. 

Numerals and zero 

Bakhshali manuscript, detail of the numeral “zero”. 

The Bakhshali manuscript uses numerals with a place-

value system, using a dot as a place holder for zero. The
dot symbol came to be called the shunya-
bindu (literally, the dot of the empty place). References
to the concept are found in Subandhu’s Vasavadatta, which has been dated between 385
and 465 by the scholar Maan Singh. 

Prior to the 2017 carbon dating a 9th-century inscription of zero on the wall of a temple

in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, was once thought to be the oldest Indian use of a zero
symbol 

Q13. Who was the author of text ‘Siddhantashiromani’? 

Bhāskara II 

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Siddhānta Śiromaṇi is the major treatise of Indian
mathematician Bhāskara II. He wrote the Siddhānta
Śiromaṇi in 1150 when he was 36 years old. The work is
composed in Sanskrit Language in 1450 verses. 

Q14. What do you understand by Uttarayan and Dakhsinayana? 

Uttarayan refers to the northward movement of the Sun. Dakshinayan comprises winter,
autumn, and monsoon. 

Major Differences between Uttarayan and Dakshinayan are: 

Uttarayan  Dakshinayan 

Summer Solstice is also known as Uttarayan.  Winter Solstice is also known as

Dakshinayan. 

Uttarayan consists of Winter, Spring, and Dakshinayan comprises winter,

Summer  autumn, and monsoon. 

Positivity is the symbol of Uttarayan   Dakshinayan is associated with

Negativity 

Uttarayan has longer days and shorter nights.  Dakshinayan is associated with
longer nights and shorter days. 

Auspicious works are encouraged during Auspicious works are discouraged

Uttarayan  during Dakshinayan 

Uttarayan starts around 22nd December and lasts Dakshinayan begins around 21st
for 6 months till approximately June 21.  or 22nd June. 

Q15. What is the unit of Harappan Scale? 

Harappans were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures
that conformed to a successive scale. The smallest division, approximately 1.6 mm,
was marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, a prominent Indus Valley city in the
modern Indian state of Gujarat. 

Cubical weights in graduated sizes. These weights conform to the standard Harappan
binary weight system that was used in all of the settlements. The smallest weight in this
series is 0.856 grams and the most common weight is approximately 13.7 grams, which is
in the 16th ratio. 

Q16. Give the name of any two Vedangas. 

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Vedangas literally mean the limbs of the Vedas. They are six in number. Just like the
limbs of the body, they perform various supportive and augmenting functions in the
study, preservation and protection of the Vedas and the vedic traditions. The six
Vedangas are Siksha, Chhanda, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Jyotisha and Kalpa. 

Q17. What are the constituents of composition of Bronze? 

Bronze, alloy traditionally composed of copper and tin. Modern bronze is typically 88
percent copper and about 12 percent tin. 

Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–

12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals
(including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such
as phosphorus, or metalloids such as arsenic or silicon. These additions produce a range
of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such
as strength, ductility, or machinability. 

The archaeological period in which bronze was the hardest metal in widespread use is
known as the Bronze Age. The beginning of the Bronze Age in western Eurasia and India
is conventionally dated to the mid-4th millennium BCE (~3500 BCE), and to the early
2nd millennium BCE in China; elsewhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze
Age was followed by the Iron Age starting from about 1300 BCE and reaching most of
Eurasia by about 500 BCE, although bronze continued to be much more widely used than
it is in modern times. 

Because historical artworks were often made of brasses (copper and zinc) and bronzes
with different compositions, modern museum and scholarly descriptions of older
artworks increasingly use the generalized term “copper alloy” instead. 

Q18. What is Alloy? 

The meaning of the term ‘alloy’ is a substance formed from the combination of two or
more metals. Alloys can also be formed from combinations of metals and other elements.
The properties exhibited by alloys are often quite different from the properties of their
individual components. It is not uncommon for alloys to have greater strength and
hardness when compared to pure metals. An example of an alloy is red gold, which is
produced by alloying copper and gold together. Another important alloy of gold is white
gold, which is produced by alloying silver and gold together. 

Q19. Write the scientific name of rice found from Indus Civilization. 

 Oryza sativa indica 

Q20. What is use the flux in metallurgy? 

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Flux, in metallurgy, any substance introduced in the smelting of ores to promote fluidity
and to remove objectionable impurities in the form of slag. Limestone is commonly used
for this purpose in smelting iron ores. Other materials used as fluxes are silica, dolomite,
lime, borax, and fluorite. 

Q21. Name the stone of Harappan weights. 

Chert 

Stone weights in Harappan cities were carefully and precisely shaped. These were made
of Chert, a kind of stone. 

Q22. Give meaning an definition of science and discuss the importance of

its study. 
Meaning of Science: 

The English word Science is derived from a Latin Verb ‘Scire’, which means ‘to know’ and
Latin Noun ‘Scientia’ which means ‘knowledge’. Meaning of Science is based on German
word ‘ Wissenchaft’, which means systematic, organized knowledge. Thus, Science is a
systematized knowledge. 

The necessity and curiosity of man to know about himself and his surroundings has led
him to investigate, find and to know about living beings and nature, which to verifiable
knowledge of facts. But Science is not always about the collection of facts or development
of new concepts or ideas. It is all about the passion for the discovery that drives one to
explore the environment and the nature in every aspect. 

Science is basically founded to investigate the nature and its processes. Although there are
a number of other methods that can be utilized to acquire the knowledge about nature,
but science is considered as the only one that results in the acquisition of reliable
knowledge. Hence, Rene Descartes said, “Science is a method of investigating nature that
discovers reliable knowledge about it.” 

Science is the investigation of unknown phenomena and it also looks and compares with
existing principles, theories and practices. Science is both a particular kind of activity and
also the result of that activity. Science uses tools like observation, measurement and
scientific experimentation and is entirely based on the observable facts. 

Science is observation, identification, description, experimentation, investigation and

theoretical explanation of the phenomenon that occur in nature. 

Science could be described as the study, which attempts to perceive and understand the
nature of the universe both living and non-living in its part and as a whole. 

Definitions of Science: 

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During early times people perceived Science, as what the scientist does. There are many
definitions available, though not a single definition could be universally accepted. 

Some of the definitions are mentioned here to understand it from different

angles: 

1. According to Columbian Dictionary: 

“Science is an accumulated and systematized learning in general usage restricted to

natural phenomenon”. 

2. Einstein (1879-1955): 

“Science is an attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our sense experience corresponds
to logically uniform system of thought”. 

3. Fitzpatrick (1960): 

“Science is a cumulative and endless series of empirical observations, which results in the
formation of concepts and theories, with both concepts and theories being subject to
modification in the light of further empirical observations. Science is both a body of
knowledge and the process of acquiring it”. 

4. Bronowski, J. (1956): 

“Science as the organization of our knowledge in such a way that it commands or makes
possible the explanation of more of the hidden potentialities found in the environment”. 

5. Conant (1957): 

“An interconnected series of concepts and conceptual schemes that have developed as a
result of experimentation and observation and are fruitful of further experimentation and
observation”. 

6. Fisher (1975): 

“Science is the body of Knowledge obtained by methods, based upon observation”. 

The above definitions clearly reveal that Science is both a process and product. A
comprehensive definition of Science would be “science is a systematized knowledge
gained through human observation and experi­mentation of cause revealing the unknown
phenomenon of nature and universe both living and non-living involving the process of
critical, creative thinking and investigation including sometimes sudden insights too.” 

Science = Process + Product 

= Methods + Knowledge 

= Scientific Method + Scientific Attitude + Scientific Knowledge 

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  Scope of Science: 

Science is a body of knowledge obtained by methods based upon observation. Observation

is authentic and that it is only through the senses of man that observations can be made.
Thus, anything outside the limits of man’s senses is outside the limits of science. In other
words, science deals with the universe and galaxies in the forms of matter and energy
which is in the form of living and non-living. 

Science employs a number of instruments to extend mail’s senses to the extremely minute
to very vast, to the short-time duration or long-time duration, to dilute or to concentrate
and so on and so forth which does not alter the conclusion that science is limited to that
which is observable. 

Thus, as in any other discipline contemporary experimental techniques set up some

practical limitations but these are not to be confused with the intrinsic limitations
inherent in the very nature of science. The knowledge of science is tested and retested and
also reinvented. 

Today the disciplines of Science and Social Sciences are drawing into each other.
Behavioural zoologists study the sociology and psychology of animals. Archaeologists
derive new insights from the rapid advances in chemical and physical analysis. Hence
sciences should be understood with interdisciplinary approach within science as a whole.
Biology draws on chemistry, physics and geology. 

Importance of Study of Science: 

Science teaches you how to think analytically 

Good science isn’t just about facts and figures. It teaches you how to think. When you
study science, you learn how to organize and analyze huge amounts of data. You learn
how to determine what’s good evidence, what’s bad, and what needs to be studied more.
This type of analytical thinking is important in many other fields. 

#2. Science teaches you how to solve problems 

When you’re facing a problem, you can use science to help you solve it. Emergency
medicine physician Gurpreet Dhaliwal, who was featured in a blog for Scientific
American, is an expert in “clinical reasoning.” This is a type of applied problem-solving
that uses science to solve problems. He uses a four-step method as a guide. Pioneered by
mathematician George Polya, the steps are: understanding, creating a plan, seeing the
plan through, and looking back to learn from the solution. Dhaliwal believes the key to
good problem-solving is finding solutions that best match the problem. Science helps him
get there. 

#3. Science has many benefits for young students 

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When they’re young, students are building lots of skills they’ll need later in life. Science
helps with many of them, such as clear communication, strong focus, and good
organization. Studies show that students usually first become interested in STEM when
they’re in elementary school. Supporting that interest helps kids build confidence in
scientific subjects. This can lead to more opportunities down the road. 

#4. Science led to the creation of technologies we use every day 

Science isn’t limited to the study of the natural world, disease, or human lifespans.
Without science, we wouldn’t have technologies like computers, the internet, cars, and so
on. These inventions transformed how humans live in the world, including how we travel,
how we communicate, and how we learn. These inventions in turn facilitate new scientific
discoveries and innovations, like DNA sequencing, space exploration, artificial
intelligence, and more! 

#5. Science careers pay well 

Science matters because it can be a lucrative career. There’s a wide variety of fields where
science is applicable, such as medicine and computer science. Some careers are accessible
with just a bachelor’s degree, though the best-paying jobs typically ask for
more education. Scientists who work for federal governments tend to make the most,
though it depends on where you’re from. For many people, science is a way to build
generational wealth and end cycles of poverty. 

#6. Science helps us live longer 

The link between scientific advancements and longer life expectancy for humans is
impossible to ignore. Without an understanding of germs or effective medical treatments,
humans in the past were extremely vulnerable. In Europe from the 1500s to the 1800s,
people could expect to live between 30 and 40 years. In 2019, people in Europe had a life
expectancy of around 80 years old. There are many reasons for this increase – including
better nutrition and better medicine – but they’re all connected to science in one way or
another. 

#7. Science gives us cleaner drinking water 

Humans need water to live, but when water isn’t clean, it can be deadly. Contaminated
water and poor sanitation can spread diseases like typhoid, polio, and cholera. Cases
of cholera, which is caused by bacteria, have been recorded as far back as the 4th century
BCE. Between 1852-1923, four cholera pandemics affected the world. The third was the
worst and killed 23,000 people in Great Britain in 1854. That was also the year John
Snow, a physician, created a map of cases. His scientific research helped him identify the
source: contaminated water from a public well. Science has also helped authorities clean
up water supplies. The United States, which has some of the safest drinking water in the
world, decreased its waterborne diseases significantly by disinfecting community drinking
water. 

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#8. Science reduces child mortality 

Humans used to be extremely vulnerable, but the truth is that we’re still vulnerable in a
lot of ways. There are still many reasons why a child might not live to become an adult,
including poverty and disease. In 2019, the WHO calculated that over 5 million kids under
5 years died of mostly preventable and treatable causes. Because of science, experts can
pinpoint the causes (like waterborne illness and malnutrition) and work to change things.
Science also helps doctors learn more about pediatric cancer and other threats to a child’s
life. 

#9. Science informs us about climate change 

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which was founded in 1988, has been
studying climate change for decades. Its most recent findings forecast a grim future.
Climate change is both more severe and more widespread than previously thought.
Inequality, conflict, and irreversible damage will only intensify without intervention.
Without science, we wouldn’t have an understanding of climate change’s effects or even
its existence. The greenhouse effect was discovered in the 1820s and by the end of the
19th century, a Swedish scientist reasoned that human-driven C02 emissions raise the
global temperature. Without science, we wouldn’t know why the earth was warming or
what to do about it. 

#10. Science helps us find alternatives to fossil fuels 

Science tells us burning fossil fuels causes climate change, but it also helps us
find alternatives. The sun, wind, and planet hold a variety of renewable energy sources.
Humans have known about the power of the sun and wind for millennia, but modern
science has helped us harness it more efficiently and on a much bigger scale. We’ve also
discovered energy sources in plants (in the form of biomass) and within the earth itself
(geothermal). Technologies like wind farms, electric cars, solar batteries, and more are
also a result of science. As climate change worsens, the world needs to commit to the
study and use of renewables. Good science is essential. 

#11. Science helps us prepare and respond to disasters 

More frequent weather-related disasters are one of the consequences of climate change,
but science can help us better prepare. An article from the American Academy of Arts &
Sciences’ “The Public Face of Science” project gives several examples of how science helps
people prepare and respond to disasters. Scientists were responsible for studying the
effects of the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill and Hurricane Sandy in 2012.
Understanding disasters (both natural and man-made) through a scientific lens helps
experts and communities develop better preparation and mitigation plans. 

#12. Science lets us study the possibility of life on other planets 

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Are we alone in the universe? This question has haunted humans for as long as we’ve
looked up into the night sky. Science, like the kind that goes on at the SETI Institute,
helps us with the answer. The Institute began with NASA’s SETI program (SETI stands
for the search for extraterrestrial intelligence) but it’s since grown into 100 scientists and
specialists in outreach, administration, and education. Its research uses telescopes, lab
research, field expeditions, advanced data analytics, and more. While humans have yet to
find evidence of life on other planets, new science like multifrequency receivers, machine
learning, and optical telescopes will help researchers refine their search. 

#13. Science teaches us about the past 

Science is often thought of as a future-focused endeavor, but it can be used to unlock

mysteries about the past. Archaeological science, which is the application of scientific
techniques to archaeological materials (like bones), helps us understand things about the
plants, animals, and humans that came before us. The study of King Tutankhamun is a
great example. In 2010, after two years of work, scientists completed the first DNA study
of an ancient Egyptian mummy. Using a CAT scanner and DNA analysis, they found
evidence of a club foot, cleft palate, and the DNA from the malaria parasite. They
determined that King Tut most likely died from complications of a broken leg and
malaria. The study also revealed that Tut’s parents were brother and sister, which was
common for Egyptian royalty. 

#14. Science can be weaponized 

Our discussion of science has been positive so far, but it’s important to acknowledge that
the field is not a neutral, benevolent force that exists outside of humans. It has a long
history of serious flaws, including racism. There’s even a specific term: scientific racism.
This is the belief that “race” is a biological reality and that some races are genetically
superior. Scientific racism first emerged in the 18th century and was mostly an attempt to
understand differences between cultures. European scientists brought all their prejudices
and biases with them. As an example, in 1758, Carl Linnaeus divided humans into four
main sub-groups. Groups from Asia and Africa were called, respectively, “greedy” and
“sluggish.” People from Europe were classified as “light” and “wise.” Scientific racism
evolved over the decades and was used to justify horrendous events in history such as the
Trans-Atlantic slave trade and the Holocaust. To prevent the weaponization of science, it’s
essential to acknowledge its history and combat racism. 

#15. Trust (and distrust) in science has big consequences 

Public trust in science has been eroding. There are several reasons for that (including
science’s history of racism), but one of the more recent drivers comes from oil
companies sowing seeds of doubt about climate change. While their own research showed
how serious climate change was, their public stance was “The data is inconclusive.” This
doubt didn’t remain walled within climate change issues. It’s spread to every area of
society, including public health. We can see the consequences of distrust in science

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everywhere. Social media algorithms fuel misinformation and the truth can’t keep up. If
the world hopes to continue to reap the benefits of science, science literacy and public
trust must be prioritized. 

Q23. Evaluate the contribution of Aryabhatta in the development of Indian

Astronomy and Mathematics. 

Aryabhatta was an Indian mathematician and astronomer who flourished during the
classical period of Indian mathematics and astronomy. He was a brilliant student and
instructor with a vast grasp of astronomy and mathematics. He put out the heliocentric
hypothesis, which established the sun’s position at the centre of the solar system and the
planets’ revolving motion around it. In reality he discovered this discovery far before
Copernicus made this discovery in the West. 

Aryabhatta 

Aryabhatta, who was born in Kerala and flourished from 476 to 550 AD, received his
education at the venerable Nalanda University. He was a pioneering
mathematician as well. 
During the Gupta era, Aryabhatta was a well-known mathematician. At the age
of 23, he wrote Aryabhattiya, and then Arya-Siddhanta. 
He worked with a 3.1416 pi approximation. 
He learned from trigonometry that the area of a triangle is equal to the sum of the
half-side and a perpendicular. 
Additionally, he tracked the solar system’s motions and determined that the solar
year had 365.8586805 days in it. 
He wrote the era’s reference work on mathematics, Aryabhattiya. It is separated
into four sections. 
Aryabhata is said to have been 23 years old in the Aryabhatiya, which was written
3,600 years into the Kali Yuga, although this does not necessarily mean that the
book was written at that time. 

Contribution of Aryabhatta 

Aryabhatiya 

Despite the fact that Aryabhatta produced several treatises, his sole known
surviving work, the Aryabhatiya, is largely recognised as his greatest
achievement. 
Its 121 poems are essentially an astronomy discourse. 33 verses in its mathematics
portion include 66 mathematical rules. 
Gitikapada (13 verses), Ganitapada (33 verses), Kalakriyapada (25
verses), and Golapada (50 verses) are the four chapters that make up
Aryabhatiya. 
Aryabhatiya includes a systematic discussion of the Solar System’s makeup, the
nature of the Solar System’s planets, and the reasons for solar and lunar eclipses. 

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 Arithmetic, algebra, plane trigonometry, and spherical trigonometry are all covered
in the Aryabhatiya’s mathematical section. 
Additionally, it includes a table of sines, continuing fractions, quadratic equations,
and sums of power series. 

Astronomy 

Contribution to the Astronomy 

Aryabhatiya is a work that contains numerous information about Hindu

mathematics and astronomy that were prevalent at the time. 
The book is divided into four chapters that deal with sine tables and astronomical
constants. 
It also includes methods for calculating planet longitudes using epicycles and
eccentrics, as well as principles for trigonometry and eclipse computation. 
The Aryabhatiya contains a ganita section that includes different new ways for
estimating the lengths of circle chords using the half chord approach, as opposed to
the Greeks who utilised the full chord method. 
The Sun and Moon, according to Aryabhata’s geocentric view of the solar
system, are borne by epicycles. 
Aryabhata scientifically described solar and lunar eclipses. 
In the Surya Siddhanta, Aryabhatta investigated the true cause of solar eclipses. 
He says that reflecting sunlight lights the Moon and planets. 
In contrast to the widely believed notion that eclipses are produced by Rahu and
Ketu, he explains eclipses as shadows projected by and falling on Earth (identified
as the pseudo-planetary lunar nodes). 
Aryabhata advocated for an astronomical model in which the Earth spun on its
own axis, as previously stated. 
His model also adjusted the speeds of the planets in the sky in relation to the mean
speed of the Sun. 

Approximation of pi 

Contribution in the approximation of pi 

Aryabhatta was a mathematician who contributed new deductions and ideas to

mathematics and astronomy. 
His contribution to mathematics is unparalleled and cannot be overlooked, as he
was the one who calculated the approximate value of pi, which he discovered to be
3.14. 
He also discovered the precise formulae for computing triangle and circle areas. 
He was also instrumental in the development of the Sines table. 

place value system 

Contribution in the place value system 

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 He was also instrumental in developing the place value system and identifying the
zero. 
He also worked on the square root and cube root summation series. He is also
credited with being the first to employ zero in the place value system. 
He also estimated the sidereal rotation of the earth in reference to the fixed stars. 
His thoughts and deductions served as the foundation for trigonometry and
algebra. 

Shining Moon & Planets 

Aryabhatta explained Shining Moon and Planets 

Aryabhata was able to accurately conclude that the Earth is round and revolves
around its axis despite the absence of precise astronomy instruments at the time. 
He also tied this to the existence of day and night. 
For the solar system, Aryabhata developed a geocentric model in which the Sun
and Moon are borne by epicycles that rotate around the Earth. 
Despite utilising a geocentric model, Aryabhata properly described how the
moons and planets have no light of their own and glow as a result of sunlight
reflection. 
Furthermore, he dispelled the incorrect assumption that eclipses are caused by the
shadows cast by the Earth and Moon and instead revealed the true causes of
eclipses. 

Movements 

Aryabhatta explained the Movements of Celestial bodies 

Aryabhata demonstrated how the Earth rotates about its axis and how the
apparent movement of stars in the night sky is, in reality, a relative motion
produced by the Earth’s rotation. 
This contradicted the widely held belief at the time that this was produced by the
rotation of the heavens. 
All of this is detailed in the first chapter
of Aryabhatiya, when Aryabhata estimates the number of Earth rotations in a
Yuga (one of the four eras defined in Hinduism). 

Conclusion 

Aryabhatta was an Indian astronomer and mathematician who excelled during the
classical period of Indian mathematics and astronomy. Aryabhatta, who lived from 476 to
550 AD and was born in Kerala, earned his education at the legendary Nalanda
University. He was also a pioneering mathematician. Aryabhattiya, the era’s reference
source on mathematics, was written by him. It’s divided into four sections. 

Q24. Discuss the Vedanga Jyotish. 

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Vedanga Jyotisha, or Jyotishavedanga (Jyotiṣavedāṅga), is one of earliest known
Indian texts on astrology (Jyotisha). The extant text is dated to the final centuries
BCE, but it may be based on a tradition reaching back to about 700-600 BCE. 

The text is foundational to Jyotisha, one of the six Vedanga disciplines. Its author is

traditionally named as Lagadha. 

The dating of the Vedanga Jyotisha is relevant for the dating of the Vedic
texts. The Vedanga Jyotisha describes the winter solstice for the period of ca. 1400 BCE.
This description has been used to date the Vedanga Jyotisha. According to Michael
Witzel, the question is “whether the description as given in the Jyotisha is also the date of
the text in which it is transmitted. It is written in two recensions – Rigveda recensions
and Yajurveda recensions. Rigveda recensions and Yajurveda recensions have same verses
except for eight additional verses in the Yajurveda’s one”. T. K. S. Sastry and R. Kochhar
suppose that the Vedanga Jyotisha was written in the period that it describes, and
therefore propose an early date, between 1370 and 1150 BCE. David Pingree dates the
described solstice as about 1180 BCE, but notes that the relevance of this computation to
the date of the Vedanga Jyotisha is not evident. The estimation of 1400-1200 BCE has
been followed by others, with Subbarayappa adding that the extant form can possibly be
from 700-600 BCE. 

Other authors propose a later composition. Santanu Chakraverti writes that it has been
composed after 700 BCE, while Michael Witzel dates it to the last centuries BCE, based on
the style of composing. According to Chakraverti, its description of the winter solstice is
correct for ca. 1400 BCE, but not for the time of its composition after 700 BCE. This may
be due to the incorporation of late Harappan astronomical knowledge into the Vedic
fold, an idea which is also proposed by Subbarayappa. Michael Witzel notes: 

[O]nly if one is convinced that Lagadha intended the solstice to be exactly at alpha
Delphini of Dhanishta, one can date his observations back to the late second millennium.
Since that cannot be shown beyond doubt, since the composition of the text is in Late Epic
language, and since its contents have clear resemblances to Babylonian works, the text
must belong to a late period, to the last centuries BCE. 

Q25. Write a short note on Astronomy during Ancient India. 

Astronomy first appeared in the Indian subcontinent during the Indus Valley

civilization in the third millennium BCE, when it was used to create calendars. Because
the Indus Valley civilization did not leave written records, the Vedanga Jyotisha, which
dates from the Vedic period, is the oldest extant Indian astronomical text. The 4th and 6th
centuries AD are considered the “Golden Age of India” because India made enormous
advances in mathematics, astronomy, sculpture, and painting during this time period. 

Astronomy During Ancient times – Features 

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 Astronomy has made great strides. Planetary motion was emphasised and closely
monitored. The Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in
astronomy, but Aryabhatta dealt with the more fundamental issue. 
His Aryabhattiya is a short text of 121 verses. It includes sections on astronomical
definitions, methods for determining the true position of the planets, the movement
of the sun and moon, and the calculation of eclipses. 
The earth was a sphere that rotated on its axis, and when the earth’s shadow fell on
the moon, it caused a Lunar eclipse, and when the moon’s shadow fell on the earth,
it caused a Solar eclipse. 
The orthodox theory, on the other hand, explained it as a process in which the
demon swallowed the planet. Varahamihira described all of these observations in
Panch Siddhantika, which summarises the five schools of astronomy prevalent at
the time. 
Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it a scientific perspective,
which later astronomers followed. 
In ancient India, astrology and horoscopes were studied. Aryabhatta’s theories
marked a significant departure from astrology, which emphasised beliefs over
scientific explorations. 

Indian Astronomy and Vedas 

The Rigveda (c1700-1100 BCE), one of Hinduism’s primary and foremost texts,
contains the first records of sophisticated astronomy in India dating back to at least
2000 BCE. 
The ancient Indian astronomers used the stars and planets to create astrological
charts and read omens, developing sophisticated mathematical models and many
intriguing theories, many of which were passed down to the Islamic world and
Europe. 
According to the Rigveda, the Indians divided the year into 360 days, which were
then divided into 12 months of 30 days. 
Two intercalary periods were added every 5 years to bring the calendar back in line
with the solar year, ensuring that years averaged 366 days. 
The Indian year, however, migrated four days every five years, and Indian
astronomers constantly tweaked and adjusted their calendars over millennia. 
The text also demonstrates that the Indians used four cardinal points to ensure that
altars were properly oriented. 
The Jyotisa Vedanga, the first Vedic text to mention astronomical data, records
events as far back as 4000 BCE, though many archaeo astronomers believe it may
include observations as far back as 11 000 BCE. 
They note that some of the records may have been copied from earlier manuscripts,
but more research is needed in this area because many of the references are unclear
and couched in religious terminology. 
Many advances in measuring time and the progression of the heavens occurred
during this period, as well as a few proto-theories about the structure of the
universe. 

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 More importantly, this time period witnessed the exchange of ideas between
Indians, Babylonians, Greeks, and Persians. This exchange of theories and
philosophy was critical to the advancement of astronomy. 

Indian Astronomy and the Siddhantic Era 

During this time, a new branch of astronomy emerged that diverged from the Vedas.
The Siddhantic Era began with the Siddhanat, or ‘Solutions,’ a series of books that
charted the solar year, including solstices, equinoxes, lunar periods, solar and lunar
eclipses, and planetary movements. 
The Siddhantic Era saw three great Indian astronomers, who are sadly little known
in the west despite their significant contributions. 
At a time when the Greeks were still using celestial crystal spheres to explain the
cosmos, Indian astronomers proposed that the stars were exactly like the sun but
much further away by the first century CE. 
They also recognised that the earth was spherical, and Indian astronomers
attempted to calculate the planet’s circumference. 

Aryabhata 

In his magnum opus Aryabhatiya (499), Aryabhata (476-550) proposed a

computational system based on a planetary model in which the Earth was assumed
to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to
the Sun. 
Many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets, times of solar and
lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon, were precisely calculated
by him. 
Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II were among the early
followers of Aryabhata’s model. 

Bhaskara II 

Bhaskara II (1114-1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory in Ujjain,

carrying on Brahmagupta’s mathematical tradition. 
He composed the Siddhantasiromani, which is divided into two parts:
Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). 
He also calculated to 9 decimal places the time it takes the Earth to orbit the Sun. At
the time, the Buddhist University of Nalanda offered formal courses in astronomy. 

Varahamihira 

Varahamihira (c. 505 – c. 587) was a Ujjain-based ancient Indian astrologer,

astronomer, and polymath (Madhya Pradesh, India). 
The Brihat Samhita, an encyclopedic work on architecture, temples, planetary
motions, eclipses, timekeeping, astrology, seasons, cloud formation, rainfall,
agriculture, mathematics, gemology, perfumes, and many other topics, was one of
Varahamihira’s most notable works. 

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 Indian astronomers proposed in the sixth century that the same force that held
objects to the Earth also held the celestial bodies in place. 
Long before Newton, this was an advancement on Anaximander’s concept of
equilibrium and recognition of a proto-gravitational theory. 
Varahamihira proposed that objects must be held stationary by an attractive force. 

Astronomy During Shunga Empire 

During the Shunga Empire, astronomy advanced, and many star catalogues were
created. The Shunga period is known as India’s “Golden Age of Astronomy.” 
It saw the development of calculations for various planets’ motions and positions,
their rising and setting, conjunctions, and eclipse calculations. 
By the sixth century, Indian astronomers believed that comets were celestial bodies
that reappeared on a regular basis. 
This was the view expressed by the astronomers Varahamihira and Bhadrabahu in
the sixth century, and the 10th-century astronomer Bhattotpala listed the names
and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unclear how these figures were
calculated or how accurate they were. 

Conclusion 

The Indian astronomers’ influence did not end there, as their work was used by Islamic
scholars and became one of the cornerstones of Islamic astronomy. During India’s great
Mughal Era (1526-1725), Hindu mathematical techniques combined with Islamic
observational techniques resulted in significant advances in astronomy. These techniques
became an important part of modern astronomy as a result of the British Colonial
annexation of India. 

Q26. What is the melting point of copper? 

1,085 °C 

Copper (Cu) in pure form is a reddish brown metal with high ductility and malleability.
The atomic weight is 63.54, atomic number is 29, and the density is 8.94 g/cm3. The
melting point is 1083°C with a boiling point of 2595°C. 

Q27. What is the meaning of ‘Ayana’? 

Beautiful Flower 

Meaning:beautiful flower. The baby name Ayana is of Swahili origin and means “beautiful
flower”. 

Q28. Who is the author of the ‘Brahmasphuta Siddhanta’ ? 

Brahmagupta 

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Brahmagupta’s fame rests mostly on his Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta (628; “Correctly
Established Doctrine of Brahma”), an astronomical work that he probably wrote while
living in Bhillamala, then the capital of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. 

Q29. What is the brick size of mature Harappan? 

Brick’s length was 4 times its height, while its breadth was 2 times its height. Such bricks
were used at all the settlements of the Harappan Civilization. 

Q30. What do you understand by ‘Kuttakganita’? 

Kuttakganita or computation using Kuttaka is the word used by Brahmagupta for algebra.
Kuttaka (often translated as Pulverizer) is an algorithm for reducing the terms of an
indeterminate equation, which is basically a recast of Euclidean algorithm to obtain the
largest common divisor of two natural numbers. 

Intrestingly, puzzles called Kuttaka are still found in folklore even now. After
Brahmagupta mathematicians reffered to algebra as avyakta ganita or unknown quantity
arithmetic. 

Q31. Name any two sites from where iron is reported. 

The earliest Iron Age sites in South India are Hallur, Karnataka and Adichanallur,
Tamil Nadu at around 1000 BCE. 

Q32. What is ‘intercalary month’? 

The intercalary month or epagomenal days of the ancient Egyptian, Coptic,

and Ethiopian calendars are a period of five days in common years and six days in leap
years in addition to those calendars’ 12 standard months, sometimes reckoned as their
thirteenth month. They originated as a periodic measure to ensure that the heliacal
rising of Sirius would occur in the 12th month of the Egyptian lunar calendar but became
a regular feature of the civil calendar and its descendants. Coptic and Ethiopian leap days
occur in the year preceding Julian and Gregorian leap years. 

Q33. What is wrought iron? 

Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content in contrast to that of cast
iron. It is a semi-fused mass of iron with fibrous slag inclusions, which give it a wood-like
“grain” that is visible when it is etched, rusted, or bent to failure. 

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