DOI:10.

4324/9781315624501

DCA40163 | ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURES

NORLIANA BINTI BAKAR | JKA | POLISAS
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
01 TRUSSES STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
Definition | Common Use | Types of Trussed Structural System

TRUSS
02 Definition | Stability of Truss | Truss Members | Types of Trusses | Load
Distribution | Criteria of Trusses

03 SPACE FRAME
Definition | Geometric unit | Characteristic | Connection | Support

CABLE STAY
04 Definition | Types | Components | Arrangement | Load Transmission |
Applications

05 GEODESIC DOME
Definition | Types | Load Distribution
 TRUSSED STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
DEFINITION COMMON USE
Andrea Palladio (1518-1580) an Italian architect

The most basic and commonly used truss

A series of correct triangular patterns in structure system is the truss frame
carrying loads structure system.

TYPES OF TRUSSED STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

01 Truss Frame Structure System
The truss structure system is a truss structure
system made by connecting straight structural
elements (rods) with joints (flexible joints) at both 02 Truss Space Structure System
ends.

03 Space Frame Structure System

01 Truss Frame Structure System TYPES OF TRUSSED STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
02 Truss Space Structure System

The truss space structure system is a series of

truss frame structure that are combined into
one unit to form a space and rest on a
particular fulcrum
The truss frame structure system is a series of
rod that form one field and are in a tensile and
compressive force balance that rests on a
particular fulcrum.

03 Space Frame Structure System

Space frame structure is a series of truss space

structure that are combined into one unit to
form space and rest on a particular fulcrum.

This space frame structure has the ability to

cover large/wide spaces and free columns in
the center
DEFINITION TRUSSES
A truss is essentially a
triangulated system of
straight interconnected
structural elements.

COMMON USE

Trusses are most commonly used

in bridges, roofs and towers.

WHY USING TRUSSES

• Achieve long span. • Reduced deflection.
• Minimize the weight of a • Support heavy loads.
structure.
 FRAME TRUSS

Planar Space
Frame Truss Frame Truss
Triangular
truss

Rectangular
truss
 TYPES OF FRAME TRUSS

Planar
Frame Truss

 The simple form of a truss is one single triangle.

 A planar truss lies in a single plane.

 An optimum depth of the truss will maximize

the efficiency.
 TYPES OF FRAME TRUSS

Space  It is three-dimensional framework.

Frame Truss
Triangular truss
 A tetrahedron shape is the simple space truss.

 Large planar structures may be composed from

tetrahedrons with common edges.

Rectangular truss

The stable truss the frame occurs in a
truss pattern that is entirely
triangular
Unstable rod frames occur in a
triangular area (BDEF point), the
truss will change shape when
subjected to loads and the truss can
collapse
STABILITY OF THE TRUSS
STRUCTURE SYSTEM
Each truss structure is a stable
arrangement of triangular
shape so that it cannot
change shape or collapse.
A collapse will occur if the truss
structure is unstable (not forming
a triangular pattern) under the
burden.
 F

STABILITY OF THE TRUSS

F STRUCTURE SYSTEM
Unstable
Rotates freely without resistance
(and collapse)

Stable
Deforms with resistance
 TRUSS MEMBERS

Top chord
A top chord which is usually in
Webbing / compression.
Top chord posts

Bottom chord
A bottom chord which is usually
in tension.

Web
Bottom chord Webbing / posts between the top
and bottom chords.
 ROOF TRUSS
MEMBERS
web
 BRIDGE
TRUSS
MEMBERS
TYPES OF TRUSSES
 KING POST TRUSS

This particular truss is made out of wood most of

the time, but it can also be built out of a
combination of steel and wood.

It all comes down to the architect and the building

structure.

The King Post Truss spans up to 8m, which makes

it perfect for multiple types of houses, especially
the smaller ones.
 FINK TRUSS

The Fink truss offers economy in terms of steel weight for

short-span high-pitched roofs as the members are
subdivided into shorter elements.

There are many ways of arranging and subdividing the

chords and internal members.

This type of truss is commonly used to construct roofs in

houses.
 FAN TRUSS

A simple design made out of steel.

Most projects with larger span of
around 10-15 meters uses this kind of
truss.
 SCISSORS TRUSS

The bottom chord members cross each other, connecting

to the angled top chords at a point intermediate on the
top chords’ length, creating an appearance similar to an
opened pair of scissor.

A scissor truss provides for a vaulted ceiling in the same

time frame as standard trusses.

Cathedral is one of the best example of this kind of truss.

Pratt truss is characterized by having its diagonal members
PRATT TRUSS
(except the end diagonals) slanted down towards the middle of
the bridge span.

The prat truss is the most popular steel truss since it is very
economical because thinner and lighter steel or iron can be used
as materials for diagonal members

It includes vertical and diagonal members that slope down

towards the center (opposite of Howe Truss).

Pratt truss can cover lengths ranging between 6-10 meters.

Rectangular Pratt
 HOWE TRUSS

One thing that makes this truss extraordinary is that it

The design of Howe truss is the opposite to
that of Pratt truss.
The diagonal members are slanted in the
direction opposite to that of Pratt truss (i.e.
slanting away from the middle of bridge
span)
has a very wide span, as it can cover anything from 6-30
meters.
This is very useful for a wide range of project types.
not economical to use steel members to handle
compressive force.

The compressive forces are generated in

diagonal members
The Warren Truss is another very popular truss
structure system and is easily identified by its WARREN TRUSS
construction from a series of isosceles triangles or
equilateral triangles.

One of the main advantages of a Warren Truss is its

ability to spread the load evenly across a number of
different members; this is however generally for
cases when the structure is undergoing a spanned
load (a distributed load). Its main advantage is also the cause of its
disadvantage – the truss structure will undergo
concentrated force under a point load.

Under these concentrated load scenarios, the

structure is not as good at distributing the load
evenly across its members.

Therefore the Warren truss type is more

advantageous for spanned loads, but not suitable
where the load is concentrated at a single point or
node.
 BOWSTRING TRUSS
The top chord is a arc and others members are
often like a Pratt.

A bowstring truss is a structural device

commonly used in bridge-building and, less
often, in industrial architecture.

Used to span wide, column-free spaces, it

consists of an arched beam (the bow) joined at
each end by a straight beam (the string), with
diagonal support beams joining the two.
 TENSION AND
COMPRESSION

Suspension Bridge Cable-stayed bridge, fan design

TRUSSES ANALYSIS
 green = tension red = compression
grey = zero force TENSION AND COMPRESSION IN TRUSSES

Pratt Truss: green members in tension, red Howe Truss: green members in tension, red
members in compression, grey are zero force members in compression, grey are zero force
members members

Warren Truss: green members in tension, red Modified Warren Truss: green members in
members in compression, grey are zero force tension, red members in compression, grey are
members zero force members
 CRITERIA OF TRUSSES

The Truss can divided to 3 criteria :-

i. Unstable
When the trusses have amount of reaction at support plus amount of members less than 2 times amount of
joint {r+b<2n}

ii. Stable and determinate truss

When the trusses have amount of reaction at support plus amount of members equal 2 times amount of
joint {r+b = 2n }

iii. Stable and indeterminate truss

When the trusses have amount of reaction at support plus amount of members more than 2 times amount
of joint {r+b > 2n }
Note : b = Amount of members ; n = Amount of joint ; r = Amount of reaction forces
EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
 SPACE FRAME
Space frame is three dimensional
structures to replace trusses and
rafter.

A space frame, also known as 3D

truss or space structure, is a
lightweight, truss-like structure that
is designed using a rigidity matrix.

It is constructed from interlocking

struts in a geometric pattern.

The simplest spatial unit of

spaceframe structure is a
tetrahedron which has six members
and four joints.
 Flip Book Link
for frame truss
https://issuu.com/download-bse/docs/space_grid_structures
 GEOMETRIC UNIT OF SPACE FRAME

Tetrahedron Half-Octahedron
 Tetrahedron (three-sided pyramid).  Half-octahedron, i.e. (four-sided pyramid).

 The tetrahedron is all triangles and  Half-octahedron’s square side makes it

clearly more stable. more convenient for most construction
projects.

 Rigid joints are required to prevent the

angles from changing.
 CONNECTION OF SPACE FRAME
The connectors for the top
The Unistrut system and bottom layers are
was developed in the identical and therefore the
U.S. in the early
fifties. Unistrut Unistrut double layer grids
consist of four components
The name of only, i.e., the connector plate,
Moduspan the strut, the bolt, and the
has also been used nut.
for this system.

Its joint consists of a The maximum span for this

connector plate that system is
is press-formed from approximately 40m with
steel plate. standard modules of 1.2m
and 1.5m.
The members are channel-shape
cold-formed sections and are fastened to
the connector plate by using a single bolt
at each end.
 CONNECTION OF SPACE FRAME

Unistrut
 The joint for the
Triodetic system,
CONNECTION OF SPACE FRAME
The Triodetic
developed in Canada,
connector can be
consists of an
used for any type of
extruded aluminum
three-dimensional
connector hub with
space frame.
serrated keyways.
Triodetic
Each member end Originally only aluminum
is pressed in order structures were built in this
to form a coined system, but later space frames
edge that fits into were erected using galvanized
the hub keyway. steel tubes and aluminum hubs.

Triodetic double layer grids have

The joint is completed when the
members are inserted into the hub,
washers are placed at each end of the
hub, and a screw bolt is passed
through the center of hub.
been used up to 33 m clear span. The
basic module can be almost any size
up to approximately 2.7min square.
The depth is usually 70% of the
module size.
CONNECTION OF SPACE FRAME
Triodetic
The Mero connector, CONNECTION OF SPACE FRAME Up to 18 members can
introduced some 50 be connected at a joint
years ago by with no eccentricity.
Dr. Mengeringhausen. Mero
Extremely popular and The manufacturer can
has been used for produce nodes of
numerous temporary different size.
and permanent
buildings. A typical space-
module of a Mero
system is a square
Its joint consists of a
pyramid (1/2
node that is a Members are circular Bolts are tightened Octahedron) with both
spherical hot-pressed hollow sections with by means of a chord and diagonal
steel forging with flat cone-shaped steel hexagonal sleeve members of the same
facets and tapped forgings welded at the and dowel pin length and angles
holes. ends which arrangement, extended are 90° or
accommodate resulting in a 60°.
connecting bolts. completed joint.
CONNECTION OF SPACE FRAME

Mero
 SUPPORT FOR SPACE FRAME
Corner Support

 Corner supports should be avoided if possible

because they cause large forces in the edge
chords.

 If only four supports are to be provided, then it

is more desirable to locate them in the middle
of the sides rather than at the corners of the
building.

 For single-span buildings, such as a sports

hall, double layer grids can be supported on
four intermediate columns.
 SUPPORT FOR SPACE FRAME
Perimeter Support

 This is the most commonly used support

location.

 The supports of double layer grids may

directly rest on the columns or on ring beams
connecting the columns or exterior walls.

 Care should be taken that the module size of

grids matches the column spacing.
 SUPPORT FOR SPACE FRAME
Column (point) Support

 For buildings such as workshops, usually

multi-span columns in the form of grids.

 Sometimes the column grids are used in

combination with supports along perimeters
 SUPPORT FOR SPACE FRAME
Inverted Pyramid Support

 Usually, the member forces around the

support will be excessively large, and some
means of transferring the loads to columns
are necessary.

 It may carry the space grids down to the

column top by an inverted pyramid (fig. a).

 If necessary, the inverted pyramids may be

extended down to the ground level (fig. b).
 SUPPORT FOR SPACE FRAME
Crosshead beam

 The use of crosshead beams on

column tops produces the same
effect as the inverted pyramid,
but usually costs more in
material and special fabrication.
 CABLE STAYS
Cable stay is the elements are only
capable of carrying or transfer tensile
load.

Cable stay also hold a structure in

position without using piers, columns
or other supports.

Physically this element is

usually in the form of a small section of
steel rod or wires.

A cable-stayed bridge has one or

more towers (or pylons), from which
cables support the bridge deck.
TYPES OF CABLE STAYS
 COMPONENTS OF CABLE STAYS

Pylon

Cables

Deck
 ARRANGEMENT OF CABLE STAYS
Radial Cables connect evenly throughout the deck, but all converge on the top
of the pier

Harp Cables are parallel, and evenly spaced along the deck and the pier

Fan A combination of radial and harp types

Star-
Cables are connected to two opposite points on the pier
shaped
 LOAD TRANSMISSION
Deck

Tension Cables

Pylon

Pile Cap

Compression
Piles

Soil
 LOAD TRANSMISSION

Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge, located between Awaji island Sutong Bridge located between Nantong and
and Kobe designed by Japanese Government Changshu, China designed by Jiangsu Province and
National Communications Ministry

The Puente del Alamillo, Seville, Spain designed by Madison Square Garden, New York City designed by
Santiago Calatrava R.E. McKee
 COMMON
APPLICATIONS OF
CABLE STAY
 TRUSS Vs CABLE
Truss and cable elements are defined by their
ability to carry solely axial loads.

Nonetheless, since cables have no stiffness when

loaded in compression, they function only in
tension.

Moreover, cables are typically pre-tensioned, i.e.,

they carry an initial tension load, while truss
elements are, typically, not pre-tensioned.

This pre-tension force substantially differentiates

the behavior of the two elements.
 RECTILINEAR
x 15°
20°
55° COMPONENTS
10kN
10° Force Fx Fy
5kN (kN)

15kN 10 10cos15° = 10sin15° =

20kN
20 20cos35° = 20sin35° =
25kN 25 25cos90° = 25sin90° =
15 15cos115° = 15sin115° =
y
5 5cos125° = 5sin125° =
Total

2 2
𝑅= 𝐹𝑥 + 𝐹𝑦
 GEODESIC DOME
Geodesic dome is a hemispherical thin-shell
structure (lattice-shell) based on a geodesic
polyhedron.

The triangular elements of the dome are

structurally rigid and distribute the
structural stress throughout the structure,
making geodesic domes able to withstand
very heavy loads for their size.

A braced dome in which the elements

forming the network are lying on the
great circle of a sphere.

It was developed in the 20th century by

American engineer and architect
R. Buckminster Fuller.
 PLATONIC POLYHEDRON
Platonic solid, any of the five
geometric solids whose faces are all
identical, regular polygons meeting at
the same three-dimensional angles.

Also known as the five regular

polyhedra, they consist of the
tetrahedron (or pyramid), cube,
octahedron, dodecahedron, and
icosahedron.
 TYPES OF PLATONIC POLYHEDRON

Also known as a triangular pyramid.

It is comprised of : 4 triangular faces,

6 straight edges and
4 vertices.

It is the only Platonic Solid that has no parallel faces, and is the simplest
of all the Platonic Solids.

When a Tetrahedron has all faces the same size and shape, it is a Regular
Tetrahedron, otherwise it is an Irregular Tetrahedron.

Irregular Tetrahedron

Regular Tetrahedron
 TYPES OF PLATONIC POLYHEDRON

An Octahedron is like two square pyramids connected at

their bases.

It has : 4 triangles that meet at each vertex,

8 faces,
6 vertices and
12 edges.
 TYPES OF PLATONIC POLYHEDRON

Cuboids are box-shaped objects that have 6 flat faces,

and all their angles are right, or 90 ° angles.

Cuboids have a length, a width, and a height.

When all three (length, width and height) are the same, a
cuboid is called a cube, and each of its faces is a square.

A cube has : 6 faces,

8 verticies and
12 edges.
 TYPES OF PLATONIC POLYHEDRON

The most complex of the Platonic Solids.

At each of its vertices, 5 trangles meet.

The Icosahedron has :

20 faces each of which is an equilateral triangle
(a triangle having 3 equal sides and 3
equal angles of 60°),
12 vertices and
30 edges.

The Icosahedron might be familiar to you from playing

games that use 20-sided dice, and mother nature
apparently also has a fondness for this shape, because
the outer shell of the human papilloma virus is an
Icosahedron.
 TYPES OF PLATONIC POLYHEDRON

This Platonic Solid is formed when 3

pentagons (5-sided polygons) meet at each
vertex.

It has : 12 faces,
20 vertices and
30 edges.

A Dodecahedron gets its name from the

Greek dodeca, which means 12.
 LOAD DISTRIBUTION
The geodesic dome is not created by rotating an arch
around the same vertical axis but by a network of shapes,
most commonly triangular due to the shape's ability to
provide the maximum amount of strength using the least
amount of materials.

Also, geodesic domes are the only types of domes which

can support its own weight.

It does this by distributing the stresses and loads within

the structure.

An advantage of this type of load distribution is that it

allows for the dome to be able to be set directly on the
ground as a complete structure.
 LOAD DISTRIBUTION
50 kN (Tension & Compression Stress)
Load from the top distribute equally to
the straight edges and then to the
ground.

29 kN 29 kN Referring figure:
 The blue edges (line) are in
tension.
 The red edges (line) are in
compression.

15 kN

25 kN 25 kN
THANKS