Oil & Natural Gas Corporation

Ltd.

PROJECT TRAINING REPORT

ON
“COMPUTER NETWORKING AND
SCADA”

Reporting at ONGC, Jodhpur: June 10, 2022

Training completion date: July 25 , 2022

Training duration: 45 days

SUBMITTED TO : SUBMITTED BY :
MR. VISHRAM MEENA PRATYUSH SHARMA
D.G.M. (E & T) 6TH SEMESTER
INFOCOM SECTION ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
ONGC, JODHPUR M.B.M. UNIVERSITY
JODHPUR, (RAJASTHAN)

1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I’m Pratyush Sharma student of 6th semester, Electronics &

Communication; acknowledge to my training mentor that I have
completed my 45 days summer project training on networking and
SCADA at ONGC, Jodhpur successfully. I have learned about
connectivity between various departments of ONGC, Jodhpur by basic
networking skills.

We convey our sincere thanks to our Mentor Mr. VISHRAM MEENA,

D.G.M. (E&T) (Incharge Infocom) for their proper guidance and
contribution for completing our training successfully and to all team
members for their efficient team work and co-operation.

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TRAINING EXPERIENCE

During these 45 days of my summer training at ONGC, Jodhpur. Our

training experience was excellent. We have learned basic things about
networking and SCADA. we have implemented many practical things
related to computer networking. All the trainees in team were really
helpful, talented and skilled. All of us did well team work and
completed the task by the help of our guide. Our mentor and all the
guides assigned to us were really talented and they were having great
knowledge of related topics and their behavior was very kind during
training, they helped us while facing problems during training. So we
would like to thanks to team members, mentor and all our guides
assigned to us during training.

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CONTENTS
SR.NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.

1. ABOUT ONGC 5

2. SCADA 7

3. SUPERVISORY STATION 15

4. SCADA ARCHITECTURE 17

5. COMPUTER NETWORK & OSI MODEL 21

6. NETWORK CLASSIFICATION 31

7. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION 40

8. Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) 44

4
9. REFERENCES 47

ONGC
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) (incorporated on June
23, 1993) is an Indian public sector petroleum company. ONGC is one of
Asia's largest and most active companies involved in exploration and
production of oil. It is involved in exploring for and exploiting
hydrocarbons in 26 sedimentary basins of India.

 It is ranked 25th among the Top 250 Global Energy Companies by

Platts.
 Contributes 70% of India's crude oil production.
 Contributes 84% of India's natural gas production.
 It was ranked as the largest profit making corporation in India.
 It was set up as a commission on August 14, 1956.
 Indian government holds 60.41% equity stake in this company.
It owns and operates more than 11,000 kilometres of pipelines in India.

5
ONGC Offshore Site

6
SCADA
SCADA stands for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition.

7
 SCADA is an online monitoring system and supervision. It is a
process control application that collects data from sensors and
machines on the shop floor or in remote locations and sends them to a
central computer for management and control.

It generally refers to an industrial control system: a computer

system monitoring and controlling a process. The process can be
industrial, infrastructure or facility based as described below:

 Industrial processes include those of manufacturing, production,

power generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run in
continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.
 Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include
water treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and
treatment, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power transmission and
distribution, civil defense siren systems, and large communication
systems.
 Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones,
including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations.

Common System Components

A SCADA System usually consists of the following subsystems:

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  A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus which
presents process data to a human operator, and through this, the
human operator monitors and controls the process.
 A Supervisory (computer) System, gathering (acquiring) data on
the process and sending commands (control) to the process.
 Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in the
process, converting sensor signals to digital data and sending
digital data to the supervisory system.
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLCs) used as field devices
because they are more economical, versatile, flexible, and
configurable than special-purpose RTUs.
 Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system
to the Remote Terminal Units.

Systems Concepts

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 The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems which monitor
and control entire sites, or complexes of systems spread out over large areas
(anything between an industrial plant and a country). Most control actions
are performed automatically by Remote Terminal Units ("RTUs") or by
Programmable Logic Controllers ("PLCs").

Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter
readings and equipment status reports that are communicated to SCADA as
required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control
room operator using the HMI can make supervisory decisions to adjust or
override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a Historian,
often built on a commodity Database Management System, to allow
trending and other analytical auditing.

Example: - a PLC may control the flow of cooling water through part of an
industrial process, but the SCADA system may allow operators to change the
set points for the flow, and enable alarm conditions, such as loss of flow and
high temperature, to be displayed and recorded. The feedback control loop
passes through the RTU or PLC, while the SCADA system monitors the
overall performance of the loop.

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11
Human Machine Interface (HMI)
A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus which
presents process data to a human operator, and through which the
human operator controls the process.

An HMI is usually linked to the SCADA system's databases and

software programs, to provide trending, diagnostic data, and
management information such as scheduled maintenance procedures,
logistic information, detailed schematics for a particular sensor or
machine, and expert-system troubleshooting guides.

The HMI system usually presents the information to the

operating personnel graphically, in the form of a mimic diagram. This
means that the operator can see a schematic representation of the
plant being controlled.

An important part of most SCADA implementations are alarms.

An alarm is a digital status point that has either the value NORMAL or
ALARM. Alarms can be created in such a way that when their
requirements are met, they are activated. An example of an alarm is
the "fuel tank empty" light in a car.

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Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)

A device that collects data from located at remote location

data acquisition equipment and sends them to the main system
over a wired or wireless network.

The RTU connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU

converts the electrical signals from the equipment to digital values
such as the open/closed status from a switch or a valve, or
measurements such as pressure, flow, voltage or current. By
converting and sending these electrical signals out to equipment
the RTU can control equipment, such as opening or closing a switch
or a valve, or setting the speed of a pump.

Switch
In electronics, a Switch is an electrical component that can break
an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one
conductor to another. The most familiar form of switch is a manually
operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical
contacts. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either

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'closed' meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow
between them, or 'open', meaning the contacts are separated and
nonconducting.

In the simplest case, a switch has two pieces of metal called

contacts that touch to make a circuit, and separate to break the circuit.
The contact material is chosen for its resistance to corrosion, because
most metals form insulating oxides that would prevent the switch from
working. Contact materials are also chosen on the basis of electrical
conductivity, hardness, mechanical strength, low cost and low toxicity.

Switches can be classified according to the arrangement of their

contacts in electronics fields— such as "one-way", "two-way", "three-
way" and "four-way" switches.

14
Basic SCADA Animation

15
Supervisory Station

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 The term "Supervisory Station" refers to the servers and
software responsible for communicating with the field equipment
(RTUs, PLCs, etc.), and then to the HMI software running on
workstations in the control room, or elsewhere. In smaller SCADA
systems, the master station may be composed of a single PC. In larger
SCADA systems, the master station may include multiple servers,
distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To
increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be
configured in a dual-redundant or hot-standby formation providing
continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server failure.

Initially, more "open" platforms such as Linux were not as widely

used due to the highly dynamic development environment and because
a SCADA customer that was able to afford the field hardware and
devices to be controlled could usually also purchase UNIX or OpenVMS
licenses. Today, all major operating systems are used for both master
station servers and HMI workstations.

Communication Infrastructure and Methods

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 SCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio
and direct serial or modem connections to meet communication
requirements. The remote management or monitoring function of a
SCADA system is often referred to as telemetry.

This has also come under threat with some customers wanting
SCADA data to travel over their pre-established corporate networks or
to share the network with other applications. The legacy of the early
low-bandwidth protocols remains, though. SCADA protocols are
designed to be very compact and many are designed to send
information to the master station only when the master station polls
the RTU.

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SCADA Architectures
SCADA systems have evolved through 3 generations as follows:

First Generation: "Monolithic"

In the first generation computing was done by Mainframe
systems. Networks didn’t exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus
SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to
other systems. Wide Area Networks were later designed by RTU
vendors to communicate with the RTU. The communication protocols
used were often proprietary at that time. The first generation SCADA
System was redundant since a back-up mainframe system was
connected at the bus level and was used in the event of failure of the
main mainframe system.

Second Generation: "Distributed"

The processing was distributed across multiple stations which
were connected through LAN and they shared information in real time.
Each station was responsible for a particular task thus making the size
and cost of each station less than the one used in First Generation. The
network protocols used were still mostly proprietary, which led to
significant security problems for any SCADA system that received
attention from a hacker. Since the protocols were proprietary, very few

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people beyond the developers and hackers knew enough to determine
how secure a SCADA installation was. Since both parties had vested
interests in keeping security issues quiet, the security of a SCADA
installation was often badly overestimated, if it was considered at all.

Third Generation: "Networked"

These are the current generation SCADA systems which use
open system architecture rather than a vendor controlled proprietary
environment. The SCADA system utilizes open standard and protocols
thus distributing functionality across a WAN rather than a LAN. It is
easier to connect third party peripheral devices like printers, disk
drives, tape drives due to the use of open architecture. WAN protocols
such as Internet Protocol (IP) are used for communication between the
master station and communications equipment. Due to the usage of
standard protocols and the fact that many networked SCADA systems
are accessible from the internet; the systems are potentially vulnerable
to remote cyber-attacks. On the other hand, the usage of standard
protocols and security techniques means that standard security
improvements are applicable to the SCADA systems, assuming they
receive timely maintenance and updates.

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Security Issues in SCADA
In particular, security researchers are concerned about:

 The lack of concern about security and authentication in the

design, deployment and operation of existing SCADA networks.
 The mistaken belief that SCADA systems have the benefit of
security through obscurity through the use of specialized
protocols and proprietary interfaces.
 The mistaken belief that SCADA networks are secure because they
are purportedly physically secured.
 The mistaken belief that SCADA networks are secure because they
are supposedly disconnected from the Internet.

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Application & Advantages of SCADA
Treatment Plant Automation for more Effective Plant Management

 Programming

 Centralized Process Control

 Alarm Annunciation

 Data Logging and Trending

SCADA for monitoring and control of remote facilities

 Programming

 Design and Implementation

 Radio Communication and Path Surveys

 Regional Wide Operations Perspective

Advantages:

 Integration of Instrumentation, Control and Graphics

 Operator Involvement and Training

 Comprehensive Implementation Services

 Monitoring, Technical and Engineering Support

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Computer Network
A computer network, or data network, is a digital telecommunications
network which allows nodes to share resources. In computer networks,
computing devices exchange data with each other using connections
between nodes (data links.) These data links are established over cable
media such as wires or optic cables, or wireless media such as Wi-Fi.

Nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, phones, servers as

well as networking hardware. Two such devices can be said to be networked
together when one device is able to exchange information with the other
device, whether or not they have a direct connection to each other.

Introduction:-
A computer network facilitates interpersonal communications allowing
users to communicate efficiently and easily via various means: email, instant
messaging, online chat, telephone, video telephone calls, and video
conferencing. A network allows sharing of network and computing
resources. Users may access and use resources provided by devices on the
network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer or use of
a shared storage device. Distributed computing uses computing resources
across a network to accomplish tasks.

A computer network may be used by security hackers to deploy computer

viruses or computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to
prevent these devices from accessing the network via a denial-of-service
attack.

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OSI Model
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular
network function.
OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable
tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.

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Layer 1: Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is
responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert
it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put
the frame back together.  

The functions of the physical layer are as follows:  

Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of
the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and
receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate
i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the
different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or
mesh topology.
Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the
data flows between the two connected devices. The various
transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices. 
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known
as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.

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Layer 2: Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a
packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it
to the Host using its MAC address. 
Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:  
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into
frames depending on the frame size of NIC(Network Interface Card).
DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the
header. 
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address
Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP
address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.  

The functions of the Data Link layer are :  

Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way
for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to
the beginning and end of the frame.
Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC address) of the sender and/or receiver in the
header of each frame.
Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control
in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

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Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the
data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of
data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
* Packet in Data Link layer is referred to as Frame. 
** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and
device drivers of host machines. 
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to
the other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet
routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from
the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses
are placed in the header by the network layer. 
The functions of the Network layer are :  
Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable
from source to destination. This function of the network layer is known
as routing.
Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender
& receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
* Segment in Network layer is referred to as Packet. 

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as

routers.

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Layer 4: Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is
referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of
the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and re-transmits
the data if an error is found.
At sender’s side: Transport layer receives the formatted data from the
upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow &
Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source
and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer. 
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the
receiver’s application. 
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default
or manually. For example, when a web application makes a request to a
web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default
port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default ports
assigned. 
At receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its
header and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective
application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the
segmented data. 
The functions of the transport layer are as follows:  
Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from
the (session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of
the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called

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service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address,
the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
The services provided by the transport layer :  
A. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that
includes 
– Connection Establishment 
– Data Transfer 
– Termination / disconnection 
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an
acknowledgement, back to the source after a packet or group of
packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
B. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data
Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not
acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster
communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more
reliable than connectionless Service.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments. 
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of
the OS and communicates with the Application Layer by making system
calls. 
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.
.

Layer 5: Session Layer

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection,
maintenance of sessions, authentication, and also ensures security. 
The functions of the session layer are :  
Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer
allows the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.

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Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which
are considered synchronization points into the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a
single layer in the TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”. 
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application
itself. These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers. 
Scenario: 
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message
through some Messenger application running in his browser. The
“Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user
with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is
compressed, encrypted (if any secure data), and converted into bits (0’s
and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.  

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Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data
from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network. 
The functions of the presentation layer are : 
Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext
and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted
on the network.

Layer 7: Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications.
These applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over
the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application
services to access the network and for displaying the received
information to the user. 
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc. 
**Application Layer is also called Desktop Layer. 

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The functions of the Application layer are :  
Network Virtual Terminal
FTAM-File transfer access and management
Mail Services
Directory Services
OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the
Internet because of its late invention. The current model being used is
the TCP/IP model.
OSI model in a nutshell

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Network Classification
The following list presents categories used for classifying networks:

 Connection method
 Scale
 Functional relationship (network architecture)
 Network topology

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Types of Networks
Below is a list of the most common types of computer networks in
order of scale:

 Personal area network(PAN)

 Local area network(LAN)
 Campus area network(CAN)
 Metropolitan area network(MAN)
 Wide area network(WAN)
 Global area network(GAN)
 Virtual private network(VPN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)

A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunications
network or computer network that extends over a large geographical
distance/place. Wide area networks are often established with leased
telecommunication circuits.
Business, education and government entities use wide area networks to
relay data to staff, students, clients, buyers, and suppliers from various
locations across the world. In essence, this mode of telecommunication

34
allows a business to effectively carry out its daily function regardless of
location. The Internet may be considered a WAN.

Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects
computers within a limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory,
university campus or office building. By contrast, a wide area network
(WAN) not only covers a larger geographic distance, but also generally
involves leased telecommunication circuits.
Ethernet and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies in use for
local area networks. Historical technologies include ARCNET, Token
ring, and AppleTalk.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that
interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic area or
region larger than that covered by even a large local area
network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered by a wide area
network (WAN). The term MAN is applied to the interconnection of
networks in a city into a single larger network which may then also offer
efficient connection to a wide area network. It is also used to mean the
interconnection of several local area networks in a metropolitan area
through the use of point-to-point connections between them.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

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A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network for
interconnecting devices centered on an individual person's workspace.
A PAN provides data transmission amongst devices such as
computers, smart phones, tablets and personal digital assistants. PANs
can be used for communication amongst the personal devices
themselves, or for connecting to a higher level network and the
Internet (an uplink) where one master device takes up the role
as gateway. A PAN may be carried over wired computer buses such
as USB.

Campus Area Network (CAN)

A campus network, campus area network, corporate area
network or CAN is a computer network made up of an interconnection
of local area networks (LANs) within a limited geographical area. The
networking equipments (switches, routers) and transmission media
(optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost entirely owned
by the campus tenant / owner: an enterprise, university, government
etc.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A virtual private network (VPN) extends a private network across a
public network, and enables users to send and receive data across
shared or public networks as if their computing devices were directly
connected to the private network. Applications running across a VPN
may therefore benefit from the functionality, security, and
management of the private network. VPN technology was developed to

36
allow remote users and branch offices to securely access corporate
applications and other resources.

Several Options are Available for WAN Connectivity:

Sample
Bandwidth
Option: Description Advantages Disadvantages protocols
range
used

Point-to-Point connection PPP,

Leased between two computers or HDLC,
Most secure Expensive
line Local Area Networks SDLC,
(LANs) HNAS

A dedicated circuit path is

Circuit created between end Less 28 - 144 PPP,
Call Setup
switching points. Best example is Expensive kbps ISDN
dialup connections

Devices transport packets

via a shared single point-
to-point or point-to-
multipoint link across a
X.25
Packet carrier internetwork. Shared media
Frame-
switching Variable length packets across link
Relay
are transmitted over
Permanent Virtual Circuits
(PVC) or Switched Virtual
Circuits (SVC)

Cell relay Similar to packet Best for Overhead can ATM

switching, but uses fixed simultaneous be considerable
length cells instead of use of voice
variable length packets. and data
Data is divided into fixed-

37
 length cells and then
transported across virtual
circuits

Internetwork
An Internetwork is the connection of two or more distinct computer
networks or network segments via a common routing technology. The result
is called an internetwork (often shortened to internet). Two or more
networks or network segments connected using devices that operate at
layer 3 (the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a
router. Any interconnection among or between public, private, commercial,
industrial, or governmental networks may also be defined as an
internetwork.

In modern practice, interconnected networks use the Internet

Protocol. There are at least three variants of internetworks, depending on
who administers and who participates in them:

 Intranet
 Extranet
 Internet

38
 Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the
Internet. If connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally
protected from being accessed from the Internet without proper
authorization. The Internet is not considered to be a part of the intranet or
extranet, although it may serve as a portal for access to portions of an
extranet.

Basic Hardware Components

All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks
to interconnect network nodes. Following are the few basic
hardware components which uses in the interconnect networking:

 Network interface cards

 Repeaters
 Hubs
 Bridges
 Switches
 Routers

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Network Switch
A Network Switch is a computer networking device that connects
network segments. The term commonly refers to a Network bridge that
processes and routes data at the Data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI
model. Switches that additionally process data at the Network layer
(layer 3 and above) are often referred to as Layer 3 switches or
Multilayer switches.

The term Network Switch does not generally encompass

unintelligent or passive network devices such as hubs and repeaters.

40
Role of Switches in Networks
Network switch is a marketing term rather than a technical one. Switches
may operate at one or more OSI layers, including physical, data link,
network, or transport (i.e., end-to-end). A device that operates
simultaneously at more than one of these layers is called a multilayer
switch, although use of the term is diminishing

In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular

interfaces make it possible to connect different types of networks, including
Ethernet, Fiber Channel, ATM, ITU-T G.hn and 802.11. This connectivity can
be at any of the layers mentioned. Interconnection of different Layer 3
networks is done by routers. If there are any features that characterize
"Layer-3 switches" as opposed to general-purpose routers, it tends to be
that they are optimized, in larger switches, for high-density Ethernet
connectivity.

In some service provider and other environments where there is a

need for a great deal of analysis of network performance and security,
switches may be connected between WAN routers as places for analytic
modules. Some vendors provide firewall, network intrusion detection, and
performance analysis modules that can plug into switch ports. Some of
these functions may be on combined modules.

41
Routers
A Router is a networking device that forwards packets between
networks using information in protocol headers and forwarding tables
to determine the best next router for each packet. Routers work at the
Network Layer of the OSI model and the Internet Layer of TCP/IP.

Routers operate in two different planes:

 Control plane, in which the router learns the outgoing interface

that is most appropriate for forwarding specific packets to specific
destinations.
 Forwarding plane, which is responsible for the actual process of
sending a packet received on a logical interface to an outbound
logical interface.

42
Communications satellite
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and
amplifies radio telecommunications signals via a transponder; it creates
a communication channel between a source transmitter and a
receiver at different locations on Earth. Communications satellites are
used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications.
There are over 2,000 communications satellites in Earth’s orbit, used by
both private and government organizations.

Wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves to carry signals.

These waves require line-of-sight, and are thus obstructed by the
curvature of the Earth. The purpose of communications satellites is to
relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication
between widely separated points

Satellite orbits
Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types
of orbit, while other orbital classifications are used to further specify
orbital details.

 Geostationary satellites have a geostationary orbit (GEO), which is

36,000 kilometers (22,000 mi) from Earth’s surface. This orbit has
the special characteristic that the apparent position of the satellite
in the sky when viewed by a ground observer does not change, the
satellite appears to "stand still" in the sky. This is because the
satellite's orbital period is the same as the rotation rate of the Earth.
 Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites are closer to Earth. Orbital
altitudes range from 2,000 to 36,000 kilometers (1,200 to 22,400 mi)
above Earth.
43
 The region below medium orbits is referred to as low Earth
orbit (LEO), and is about 160 to 2,000 kilometers (99 to 1,243 mi)
above Earth.
As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit are faster, they do not remain visible
in the sky to a fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary
satellite.

Low Earth orbit (LEO)

Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than
geostationary satellites and, due to proximity to the ground, do not
require as high signal strength. Thus there is a tradeoff between the
number of satellites and their cost.

Medium Earth orbit (MEO)

MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in functionality. MEO
satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites. A MEO
satellite’s longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer
satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network. One
disadvantage is that a MEO satellite’s distance gives it a longer time
delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite, although these limitations
are not as severe as those of a GEO satellite.

Geostationary orbit (GEO)

A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground
antennas can be aimed at the satellite without their having to track the
satellite's motion. This is relatively inexpensive.

44
In applications that require a large number of ground antennas, such
as DirecTV distribution, the savings in ground equipment can more than
outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit.

Frequency Allocation for satellite systems

Frequencies to satellite services are carried out under the auspices of
the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). To facilitate
frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions: Region 1:
Europe, Africa, what was formerly the Soviet Union, and Mongolia
Region 2: North and South America and Greenland Region 3: Asia,
Australia, and the southwest Pacific

Services Provided by Satellites are:

 Fixed satellite service (FSS)
 Broadcasting satellite service (BSS)
 Mobile-satellite service
 Radio navigation-satellite service

Applications
Television
A direct broadcast satellite is a communications satellite that transmits
to small DBS satellite dishes (usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in
diameter). Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper
portion of the microwave Ku band. DBS technology is used for DTH-
oriented (Direct-To-Home) satellite TV services, such as DirecTV, DISH
Network, Bell TV, Shaw Direct, Free sat, Sky, Tata Sky, AirtelTV
and DSTV 

45
Radio broadcasting
A satellite radio or subscription radio (SR) is a digital radio signal that is
broadcast by a communications satellite, which covers a much wider
geographical range than terrestrial radio signals.

Internet access
After the 1990s, satellite communication technology has been used as a
means to connect to the Internet via broadband data connections. This
can be very useful for users who are located in remote areas, and
cannot access a broadband connection, or require high availability of
services.

Military
Communications satellites are used for military
communications applications, such as Global Command and Control
Systems. Examples of military systems that use communication
satellites are the MILSTAR, the DSCS, and the FLTSATCOM of the United
States, NATO satellites, United satellites (for instance Skynet), and
satellites of the former Soviet Union.

The term Very Small Aperture

Terminal (VSAT) refers to a

46
small fixed earth station.
VSATs provide the
vital communication link
required to set up a satellite
based Communication
network. VSATs can
support any communication
requirement be it voice, Data, or
video conferencing.
A Very Small Aperture
Terminal (VSAT), is a two-way
satellite ground station or a
stabilized maritime
VSAT antenna with a dish
antenna that is smaller than 3
47
meters. The majority of VSAT
antennas range
from 75 cm to 1.2 m. Data rates
typically range from 56 Kbit/s
up to 4 Mbit/s. VSATs access
satellites in
geosynchronous orbit to relay
data from small remote earth
stations (terminals) to other
terminals (in
mesh configurations) or master
earth station "hubs" (in star
configurations).
The term Very Small Aperture
Terminal (VSAT) refers to a
48
small fixed earth station.
VSATs provide the
vital communication link
required to set up a satellite
based Communication
network. VSATs can
support any communication
requirement be it voice, Data, or
video conferencing.
A Very Small Aperture
Terminal (VSAT), is a two-way
satellite ground station or a
stabilized maritime
VSAT antenna with a dish
antenna that is smaller than 3
49
meters. The majority of VSAT
antennas range
from 75 cm to 1.2 m. Data rates
typically range from 56 Kbit/s
up to 4 Mbit/s. VSATs access
satellites in
geosynchronous orbit to relay
data from small remote earth
stations (terminals) to other
terminals (in
mesh configurations) or master
earth station "hubs" (in star
configurations).

50
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)
A very small aperture terminal (VSAT) is a small-sized earth station
used in the transmit/receive of data, voice and video signals over a
satellite communication network, excluding broadcast television. A
VSAT consists of two parts: a transceiver placed outdoors in direct line
of sight to the satellite, and a device that is placed indoors to interface
the transceiver with the end user’s communications device, such as a
PC. The transceiver receives or sends a signal to a satellite transponder
in the sky. The satellite sends and receives signals from a ground station
computer that acts as a hub for the system. Each end user is
interconnected with the hub station via the satellite, forming a star
topology. The hub controls the entire operation of the network. For one
end user to communicate with another, each transmission must first go
to the hub station, which then retransmits it via the satellite to the
other end user’s VSAT. VSAT data throughput speeds have increased
significantly throughout the years and now can provide multimegabit
service in downstream and upstream. Antenna/dish sizes usually range
from 1.2 meters to approximately 3 meters in diameter. Generally,
these systems operate in Ku-band and C-band frequencies, but with the
launch of Ka-band satellites by a number of operators in North America
and Asia/Pacific, and with newer Ka-band satellites planned for Europe,
high-bandwidth, bidirectional VSAT services for enterprise, government
and other users will increasingly migrate to these satellites.

51
52
CONCLUSION:
ONGC, Jodhpur is basically an administrative office which is looking
after drilling activities going in Thar Desert area and Gas Collection
Station, Gamnewala, Ramgarh, Jaisalmer. It works as an intermediate
between these all sites and remotely supervises and controls the sites.
We have learnt about SCADA that is provided by ABB organization that
maintains records and tells about what amount of production of
hydrocarbons such as oil and gases, about RTU, components and
functions of SCADA.
LAN has a high speed of transmission and provides more security. We
learnt about types of cables, color codes of UTP cable (RJ45), working of
Switches, Media Converter, and Modems etc. In ONGC Jodhpur
nowadays the groups of people are working on the system to make it
more secure and reliable using topologies i.e. star.

53
REFERENCES
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/
2. www.Studymafia.org
3. www.scada.com
4. https://newsite.scada-international.com/news-hub
5. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org
6. https://www.mobilsat.com/vsat
7. https://www.ongcindia.com

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