CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a semi-crystalline polymer and its

composites are widely used in the packaging, construction, automotive,
household, electrical and textile industries. Considerable efforts have been made
to improve the various physical, mechanical and barrier properties of PET by
mixing with the nano-class to produce PET composites from stratified clay. The
efficiency of the recovery of polymeric materials is much increased if they are
finely ground after grinding.
Polymeric nanocomposites are a class of materials in which nanoscale
particulates such as layered clays or spherical inorganic minerals are dispersed
within polymeric matrices. Compared to pure polymers, polymeric
nanocomposites are claimed to exhibit markedly improved properties, such as
modulus, strength, stiffness, flame retardancy, dimensional stability, electrical
conductivity, barrier performance, solvent and heat resistance, wettability and
dyeability depending on type and content of nanoparticles used.
A composite is a mixture of or greater substances that bring about higher
residences than while the person additives are used alone. Two elements of the
composite are commonly a metal and a matrix. Typical metal are usually
crystalline solids, they have a relatively simple crystal structure distinguished
by a close packing of atoms and a high degree of symmetry. Typically, atoms of
metals contains less than half the full complement of electrons in their
outermost shell. Matrices may be polymers, metals, or ceramics. The
discontinuous or allotted section, that’s commonly decided on to own advanced
mechanical residences, is aptly termed as “reinforcement.” The residences of
reinforcement significantly have an effect on the consequent residences
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exhibited with the aid of using the composites. Here, the interphase regarding
reinforcement with the matrix assumes importance as load switch needs to be
found out through “zones” or “regions”. The matrix is sizeable with inside the
feel that the aggregates don’t have any use in any respect except this binding
agent, i.e., the matrix holds them in place. The matrix, which isn’t advanced as
the opposite section in time period of mechanical residences, has a tendency to
play the position of load switch to the allotted section. The matrix additionally
acts as a barrier to guard in opposition to damaging environment, mechanical,
and chemical degradation which includes abrasion or corrosion.

1.1 Polymer Matrix Composite

Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) are present in almost all aspects of
modern life - from gadget components to a vast selection of automotive
accessories. Derived from its name, meaning many repeating units, polymers
are often made up of branches of carbon and hydrogen chemically linked
together to make a chain.
Polymers that are often used as composites are either thermoplastic
polymers, thermosetting polymers or elastomers. They are a source of a wide
variety of low-priced, raw materials which offer many advantages like

i. Low specific weight

ii. High material stability against corrosion
iii. Good electrical and thermal insulation
iv. Ease of shaping and economic mass production
v. Attractive optical properties

Polymer matrix composites are materials made up of metal powder that

are embedded in a polymer matrix. These metal powders are introduced to

2
enhance selected properties of the material. Polymer matrix composites are
classified based on their level of strength and stiffness into two distinct types:

i. Reinforced plastics - confers additional strength and load carring

ability by adding embedded metal powder matter into plastics
ii. Advanced Composites - consists of metal powder and matrix
combinations that facilitate strength and superior stiffness. They
mostly contain high-performance.

1.1.1 Properties of a PMC

The constituents of a PMC, which affect its overall properties, are:

 Matrix - This is the polymer, which is a continuous phase and is

classified as the weak link in a PMC structure.
 Reinforcement - This is a discontinuous phase and is a principal
load-bearing component. It can either be glass, quartz, basalt, or
carbon fibre.
 Interphase - The interphase between the reinforcement and matrix
phases where load transmission takes place.

1.1.2 Fabrication of composites made of polymer matrix

Polymers are reinforced with metal powder of 150 microns in grain size
are collected from the machine shops which are thrown as a waste. Metal
powder of 150 microns are collected by sieve analysis. These metal powders are
then impregnated into the matrix polymer in liquid form by injection, extrusion,
pressing or stamping and then cured to produce the final composite.
During the fabrication and shaping of polymer matrix composites into
finished products, often the formation of the material itself is incorporated in the
fabrication process.
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These processes include
1 Hand lay-up
2 Vacuum moulding
3 Spray lay-up
4 Pultrusion
5 Resin transfer moulding (RTM)
6 Filament winding

1.1.3 Uses of PMC

1 Automotive industry
2 Aircraft and aerospace industry
3 Marine
4 Sports goods
5 Biomedical applications
6 Electrical
7 Protective equipment
8 Industrial

1.2 Material used

 Used Beverage Plastic plastic
 Metal Powder

1.2.1 Single used waste plastic

Single-use plastics are goods that are made primarily from fossil fuel–
based chemicals (petrochemicals) and are meant to be disposed of right after use

4
—often, in mere minutes. Single-use plastics are most commonly used for
packaging and service ware, such as bottles, wrappers, straws, and bags.
Single-use plastics are a glaring example of the problems with throwaway
culture. Instead of investing in quality goods that will last, we often prioritize
convenience over durability and consideration of long-term impacts. Our
reliance on these plastics means we are accumulating waste at a staggering rate.
We produce 300 million tons of plastic each year worldwide, half of which is
for single-use items. That’s nearly equivalent to the weight of the entire human
population.
Plastic recycling is the method of gathering waste plastic and
reconverting them to new and useful plastic products. The world produces and
makes use of more than a trillion pounds of plastic material. Plastic recycling
ensures that this massive amount of plastic does not go to waste. Instead, you
can reprocess the materials to get other products.

1.2.2 Powdered Metal

Particle size distribution, shape, surface quality, and powder structure are
all factors in metal powders. These affect bulk qualities like reactivity, flow
capacity, compressibility, porosity, and hardenability, all of which increase
better as particle size decreases. For the majority of metal powder processes,
particle size and shape are essential factors because they affect factors including
powder flow, powder packing, porosity, reactivity, and even health and safety.
Whether it is spraying, spreading, pressing, or sintering, these qualities need to
be tailored for the specific end process. The manufacturing of components with
fewer faults and consistent quality is linked to metal powders that pack
consistently well to provide a high density.There are numerous types of metal
powder available for additive manufacturing (3D printing, rapid prototyping).

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1.3 Stress Strain Diagram
When building unusual machine parts, it is crucial to understand what the
fabric is capable of. In order to do this, certain fabric properties or homes must
be known. In mechanical engineering studies, a basic tensile test is frequently
used to assess mechanical buildings. In these studies, a standard fabric specimen
is subjected to increasing loads, and the resulting loads and elongation values
are recorded before the specimen breaks. A testifying unit is used to carry out
and measure the weight. "Pressure is computed by dividing the weight values by
the preliminary pass section. By calculating the amount of time needed to go a
positive distance, the specimen's floor elongation is determined.

Fig1.1 stress strain diagram

1.3.1 Proportional Limit

A directly line runs from factor zero to factor A with inside the diagram,
suggesting that pressure is proportional to pressure. The curve marginally
deviates from the directly line above factor A. As a result, its far frame that
Hooke’s regulation holds real as much as factor A that is called the proportional
limit. It’s the ache at which the pressure-pressure curve begins off evolved to
deviate from the directly line.

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1.3.2 Elastic limit

Elastic limit is the maximum stress or force that a material can withstand
before it begins to deform permanently, or in other words, before it reaches its
yield point. Beyond this point, the material will not be able to return to its
original shape even if the stress is removed. The elastic limit is an important
concept in materials science and engineering, as it determines the maximum
amount of stress that a material can withstand without being permanently
deformed or damaged.
1.3.3 Yield point

Yield point is the stress level at which a material begins to deform

plastically or permanently, after which it will not return to its original shape
when the stress is removed. It is also known as the yield strength or yield stress.
Yield point is an important property of materials, and is used to determine the
maximum amount of stress that a material can withstand before undergoing
permanent deformation or failure. The yield point is typically determined
through a stress-strain curve, which plots the stress applied to a material against
the resulting strain. The yield point is the stress level at which the curve begins
to deviate from a straight line, indicating that the material has undergone plastic
deformation.

1.3.4 Ultimate stress

The specimen regains a few power at 5, and better pressure values are
required for better trains than at A and D. The anxiety degree keeps to upward
thrust till it reaches factor E. The cross-sectional place of the specimen is
uniformly decreased because the stress of the specimen step by step increases.
The paintings executed whilst stretching the specimen is frequently transformed
to gas, and the specimen heats up Ultimate pressure is defined because the
7
pressure that reaches its most price at E. It is described as the most important
pressure received with the aid of using di ding the most load reached in a check
with the aid of using the check piece’s unique cross-sectional.

1.3.5 Breaking stress

Breaking stress, also known as ultimate tensile strength, is the maximum

stress that a material can withstand before it breaks or fails. It is the stress level
at which the material experiences the highest point on the stress-strain curve and
breaks. Breaking stress is an important property of materials, as it determines
the maximum load or stress that a structure or component can withstand without
experiencing failure or damage. It is typically determined through tensile
testing, which involves stretching a sample of the material until it breaks while
measuring the stress and strain. The breaking stress is an important
consideration in the design and testing of materials and structures to ensure their
reliability and safety.

1.4 Various Mechanical Testing

1.4.1 Tensile Test
A tensile take a look at is a bodily experimental assessment done on
substances to decide their suitability for precise engineering or production
programs to make certain quality. Tensile checking out entails making use of a
pressure on contrary ends of the specimen and pulling outwardly till the steel
breaks to decide the strain, stress, yield deformation and different homes
particular to the specimen.

The pressure is generally carried out with the usage of a trying out gadget
that applies a pressure at a uniformly constant rate. Testing machines can be

8
electrochemical or hydraulic. The tensile take a look at gadget’s movement
hundreds the specimen in anxiety or compression

The trendy tensile check is used to attain quite a few cloth traits and
strengths which might be utilized in design. Test specimens may be either flat or
cylindrical, relying at the kind of machine. The authentic diameter, or width,
and the authentic gauge period are recorded earlier than the check is begun, and
are used to degree the deflections. The specimen, as soon as loaded with inside
the check machine, is slowly loaded in anxiety whilst the burden and deflection
are measured.

Fig 1.2 Universal Testing Machine Fig 1.3Tensile Testing

1.4.2 Flexural Test

Bend checking out in composites is used to decide flexural electricity and
stiffness of a stable laminate or sandwich construction. The specimen is loaded

9
in a horizontal function in a three-factor or four-factor loading configuration in
a flexural take a look at. The take a look at fixture has a help factor close to
every fringe of the beam and a loading nostril with one (third-factor loading) or
two (four-factor loading) configurations. The distance among supports, and the
loading factors with inside the four-factor configuration, may be effortlessly
changed to conform the fixture to special specimen geometries and thickness-to-
period ratios.

Flexural is a combination of three properties:

i. Tensile 

ii. Compression

iii. Shear

The specimen in flexure will fail as soon as one of the three fundamental
stresses reaches its proscribing value. The check end result can assist to
apprehend the failure mode of a given geometry and loading configuration.

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 Fig 1.4 Flexural Testing

1.4.3 Compression Test

Compression trying out is a totally not unusual place trying out approach
this is used to set up the compressive pressure or overwhelm resistance of a
cloth and the cap potential of the fabric to get better after a designated
compressive pressure is implemented or even held over a described duration of
time. Compression exams are used to decide the fabric behaviour beneath load.
The most pressure a cloth can preserve over a duration beneath a load (steady or
progressive) is determined. A compression takes a look at is a mechanical take a
look at wherein a cloth or product responds to forces that push, compress,
squash, weigh down and flatten the take a look at specimen. Compression trying
out is a essential mechanical take a look at, comparable in nature to tensile and
bend assessments. Compression assessments symbolize fabric and product
electricity and stiffness beneath carried out crushing loads. These assessments
are normally carried out via way of means of making use of compressive strain
to a take a look at specimen the usage of platens or specialised furniture with a
trying out system that produces compressive loads.

Compression checking out is frequently performed to a damage (rupture)

or to a restriction. When the take a look at is completed to a damage, damage
detection may be described relying at the kind of cloth being tested.

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 Fig 1.5 Flexural Test

1.4.4 Impact Test

Impact test is a type of mechanical test used to determine the ability of a
material to absorb energy when subjected to a suddenly applied load or impact.
It is used to evaluate the toughness and strength of materials, particularly metals
and polymers, under high-speed loading conditions. There are several different
types of impact tests, but the most common one is the Charpy impact test, which
involves a pendulum striking a notched sample of the material. The amount of
energy absorbed by the material during the impact is measured and used to
calculate the material's toughness.
Impact testing is critical in the design and testing of materials and
structures that are subjected to high-speed loading conditions, such as aircraft
components, automotive parts, and safety equipment. The results of impact tests
can be used to determine the suitability of a material for a particular application,
and to identify potential failure modes and weaknesses in the material. The
effect resistance of a component is, in lots of applications, a essential degree of
its carrier life. More importantly, it influences product protection and liability.
Factors affecting effect overall performance include:

 Moulded-in stresses
 Polymer orientation
 Weak spots (weld lines or gate areas)
 Part geometry
Impact properties can also change when additives, such as coloring agents, are
added to plastics.

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 Fig 1.6 Impact Test
1.4.5 Microhardness Testing
Microhardness testing is a type of mechanical test used to determine the
hardness of a material at a microscopic level. It involves indenting the surface
of a material with a diamond or tungsten carbide indenter under a small load,
typically between 10 and 1000 grams, and measuring the size of the resulting
indentation.
Microhardness testing is used to evaluate the hardness and strength of
very small or thin samples, and is particularly useful for testing materials that
are difficult to prepare or test using traditional macroscopic testing methods. It
is commonly used in materials science and engineering research to study the
microstructure and properties of materials, as well as in quality control and
failure analysis of industrial components.
There are several different types of microhardness tests, including the
Vickers test and the Knoop test, which use different types of indenters and load
ranges. The results of microhardness testing can be used to determine the
material's resistance to wear, deformation, and cracking under load, and to
evaluate the effects of microstructural features, such as grain boundaries and
phase boundaries, on the material's mechanical properties.

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 Fig 1.7 Micro-Hardness Testing Machine

1.4.5.1 Vickers Hardness

The Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests since the
required calculations are independent of the size of the indenter, and the
indenter can be used for all materials irrespective of hardness. The basic
principle, as with all common measures of hardness, is to observe a material's
ability to resist plastic deformation from a standard source. The Vickers test can
be used for all metals and has one of the widest scales among hardness tests.
The unit of hardness given by the test is known as the Vickers Pyramid Number
(HV) or Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH). The hardness number can be
converted into units of pascals, but should not be confused with pressure, which
uses the same units. The hardness number is determined by the load over the
surface area of the indentation and not the area normal to the force, and is
therefore not pressure.

Fig 1.8 Schematic of a Vickers indentation probe.

14
 There is a diploma of operator bias on this method, in particular
withinside the decrease variety of the implemented load. According to ASTM
E384-11, indentation diagonals need to be extra than 17 microns in length. For
lined samples, this check isn’t always legitimate for coating thicknesses
beneathneath 60 microns.

Fig 1.9 Vickers indentation schematic.

For many kinds of samples, the touch depth (hc) isn’t same to the
displacement depth (h) because of surrounding fabric getting elastically
deflected in the course of the indentation, as proven schematically (left). In
addition to the above-cited pattern and environmental considerations, this
impact additionally influences accuracy and precision for microhardness data.

15
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Foti, Dora, (2019), Recycled waste PET for sustainable fiber-reinforced

concrete. In recent years, numerous authors have focused on the use of PET
fibers mostly dispersed within the concrete mix, giving rise to a wide range of
studies concerning types of fibers that considerably vary in shape, size, surface
roughness, and other characteristics. It has been found that in all the cases the
percent volume of fiber added to the concrete has a direct influence on both the
compressive and tensile strength of ecological concrete and that the fiber length
has a direct influence on the tensile strength of ecological concrete. As for the
shape and the dimensions, most of these studies involve little fibers, generally
with a width of a few millimeters and a length of some centimeters, uniformly
distributed into the concrete matrix.
S. Kilinc et al, (2005), Recycling of Waste PET: Usage as Secondary
Plasticizer for PVC. Postconsumer water bottle poly (ethylene terephthalate)
(PET) flakes had been depolymerized with ethylene glycol (EG) through the
glycolysis response in the presence of zinc acetate because the catalyst. In the
depolymerization reactions, specific weight ratios of PET=EG had been used. In
order to achieve polyesters used as PVC plasticizers, those glycolysis
merchandise containing hydroxyl quit organizations had been reacted with an

16
adipic acid (AA)–containing diacid organization at equal amounts. In order to
achieve PVC plastisols, PVC became dispersed right into a plasticizers’
combination composed of di-isooctyl phthalate (DOP) and polyester
merchandise through the usage of a highspeed mixer (PVC=plasticizers, 65=35
w=w). For the coaching of plasticizer combination polyester merchandise had
been used at a weight ratio of 20%, 40%, 60% of DOP. Plasticized PVC sheets
had been organized from plastisols and their glass transition temperatures (Tg),
migration, and mechanical homes had been determined. The consequences
display that the polyester merchandise acquired from glycolysis merchandise of
waste PET may be used as secondary plasticizers, with DOP for PVC.
Gu, Fu; Guo, Jianfeng; Zhang, Wujie; Summers, Peter A.; Hall,
Phillp, (2017), From waste plastics to industrial raw materials: Mechanical
recycling of waste plastics is an environmental solution to the problem of waste
plastic disposal, and has already become a common practice in industry.
However, limited information can be found on either the industralised plastic
recycling or the recycled materials, despite the use of recycled plastics has
already extended to automobile production. This study investigates the life
cycle environmental impacts of mechanical plastic recycling practice of a
plastic recycling company in China. Waste plastics from various sources, such
as agricultural wastes, plastic product manufacturers, collected solid plastic
wastes and parts dismantled from waste electric and electronic equipments, are
processed in three routes with products end up in different markets. The results
of life cycle assessments show that the extrusion process has the largest
environmental impacts, followed by the use of fillers and additives. Compared
to production of virgin plastics and composites, the mechanical recycling is
proved to be a superior alternative in most environmental aspects. Substituting
virgin plastic composites with recycled plastic composites has achieved the
highest environmental benefits, as virgin composite production has an impact
17
almost 4 times higher that of the recycled composite production in each ReCiPe
endpoint damage factor. Sensitivity analysis shows that the coverage of
collecting network contribute affect little to overall environmental impact, and
centralisation plays an important role in reducing overall environmental
impacts.

Andrady, Anthony L, (1994). Assessment of environmental

biodegradation of synthetic polymers. The large-scale commercial use of
synthetic polymers and their disposal in the environment is a phenomenon less
than half a century old, a duration which is minuscule in the evolutionary time
scale required for microbial evolution on earth. Consequently, unlike their
naturally-occurring counterparts, the biopolymers, which enjoyed long-term
interactions with the microbial biosphere, synthetic polymers never had the
opportunity to serve as a source of a microbial nutrient of any significance.
Hence, few, if any, of the microorganisms are biochemically equipped to
catabolize synthetic macromolecules. This lack of development of metabolic
pathways capable of utilizing synthetic polymers is often cited as the main
reason for recalcitrance of synthetic polymers in the environment [l]. The term
“recalcitrant” is used here to describe organic compounds that persist for
extended periods of time in the environment, but not necessarily as a result of
microbial fallibility.

Mazeyar Parvinzadeh; SIamak Moradian; Abosaeed Rashidi;

Mohamad-Esmail Yazdanshenas, (2010), Surface characterization of PET.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) based nanocomposites containing hydrophilic
(i.e. Aerosil 200 or Aerosil TT 600) or hydrophobic (i.e. Aerosil R 972) nano-
silica were prepared by melt compounding. Influence of nano-silica type on
surface properties of the resultant nanocomposites was investigated by the use
18
of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), atomic force microscopy
(AFM), contact angle measurement (CAM), scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) and reflectance spectroscopy (RS). The possible interaction between
nano-silica particles and PET functional groups at bulk and surface were
elucidated by transmission FTIR and FTIR-ATR spectroscopy, respectively.
AFM studies of the resultant nanocomposites showed increased surface
roughness compared to pure PET. Contact angle measurements of the resultant
PET composites demonstrated that the wettability of such composites depends
on surface treatment of the particular nano-silica particles used. SEM images
illustrated that hydrophilic nano-silica particles tended to migrate to the surface
of the PET matrix.

Foolmaun et al, Comparative life cycle assessment and life cycle costing
of four disposal scenarios for used polyethylene terephthalate bottles in
Mauritius. The annual rise in population growth coupled with the flourishing
tourism industry in Mauritius has lead to a considerable increase in the amount
of solid waste generated. In parallel, the disposal of non-biodegradable wastes,
especially plastic packaging and plastic bottles, has also shown a steady rise.
Improper disposal of used polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles constitutes
an eyesore to the environmental landscape and is a threat to the flourishing
tourism industry. It is of utmost importance, therefore, to determine a suitable
disposal method for used PET bottles which is not only environmentally
efficient but is also cost effective. This study investigated the environmental
impacts and the cost effectiveness of four selected disposal alternatives for used
PET bottles in Mauritius.

X. Hu, J. Calo, AIChE Journal, 52, 1333(2006). Many research works

have focused on incorporation of nano-silica into various polymershowever
19
only a few deal with preparation of PET-silica nanocomposites. Researchers
claim that nano-silica particle impact higher stiffness, tensile strength, modulus,
impact strength, toughening, crystallinity, viscosity, creep resistance, and
interfacial adhesion in polyethylene, polypropylene and thermoplastic elastomer
nanocomposites, depending on surface properties of such nano-silica particles.

T. Kameda, Y. Fukuda, G. Grause and T. Yoshioka, J. Appl. Polym.

Sci., 116, 36 (2010). Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a semi-crystalline
polymer and its composites are widely used in the packaging, construction,
automotive, household, electrical and textile industries. Considerable efforts
have been made to improve the various physical, mechanical and barrier
properties of PET by mixing with the nanoclass to produce PET composites
from stratified clay. The efficiency of the recovery of polymeric materials is
much increased if they are finely ground after grinding.

W. Glenz, Kunststoffe, 10, 76 (2007). Although recycling of materials

such as glass, aluminium and paperboard has been rather extensively practiced,
recycling of polymeric materials has not reached maturity yet. This is mainly
due to the wide variety of different polymers used in packaging, together with
the fact that plastics usually used for packaging are not consisted of a single-
type polymer but rather of polymer mixtures or copolymers, with sometimes a
variety of additives in small amounts. Although, the presence of large quantities
of mixed plastic waste, impurities and contamination are the main challenge for
the effective recycling of plastics from packaging, during the last decade,
effective management of the different waste streams (selective sorting,
automatic separation) has allowed the recovery of large volumes of relatively
clean and homogeneous polymeric fractions that are viable for mechanical
recycling.
20
 F. P. La Mantia, M. Vinci, Polym. Degrad. Stab., 45, 121 (1994). The
predominant method of waste disposal in most countries has been and remains
landfifill. However, disposing of the waste to landfifill is becoming undesirable
due to legislation pressures, rising costs and the poor biodegradability of
commonly used polymers. The approaches that have been proposed for
recycling of waste polymers include: primary recycling, mechanical recycling,
chemical or feedstock recycling and energy recovery.

F. P. La Mantia, M. Vinci, Polym Recycling, 1, 33 (1994). It is time to

consider how the efficiency of plastics can be incorporated in a comprehensive
strategy for a future ‘ecological’ economy and the only way out is to find
effective ways of disposal the plastic wastes. Unfortunately, current recovery
rates for all materials in the municipal solid-waste stream, with the exception of
food wastesm exceed that of plastics. Paper is estimated at a 26% recovery rate,
aluminium at 32% and glass at 12%. plastic is just now reaching an approximate
rate of 1%. This is low rate has been a major concern to the plastic industry
since it reinforces the belife that plastics are not recyclable.
D. S. Achilias, A. Giannoulis, G. Z. Papageorgiou, Polym. Bull., 63,
449 (2009) Quartenary recycling comprises destructive techniques which aim at
the utilization of plastics wastes as energy sources. The energy content may be
recovered, at least in part, once only, by burning the waste material in air
incineration or conversion to Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF). However, this
technology has been accused as ecologically unacceptable due to undesired
emission.
E.M. Kampouris, C. D. Papaspyrides, C. N. Lekakou, Polym. Eng.
Sci., 28, 534 (1988). A mixture of the six main thermoplastics (PS, LDPE,
HDPE, PP, PVC, and PET) are dissolved in xylene to form a homogeneous
21
mixture of concentrations of 5–10 % by weight, followed by controlled
temperature–solvent extractions that separate the individual polymers. The
typical composition of this waste is 19.5% paper, 4% metal, 2.5% glass, 7%
plastics, 59% food waste and 8% various materials (wood, textile, inert, etc.)
(Fragiskos, 1999; Voudrislis, 1998). Despite the fact that polymers contribute
only 7.0% to the total weight of the solid waste, they are sometimes responsible
for more than 30% of its volume, causing signifificant problems in the landfifill
sites. In addition, polymers are non-biodegradable materials and, thus, they
retain their initial form for a very long time.
J. G. Poulakis, C. D. Papaspyrides, Adv. Polym. Techn., 14, 237
(1995). polymer/layered silicate (PLS) nanocomposites have attracted great
interest, both in industry and in academia, because they often exhibit
remarkable improvement in materials properties when compared with virgin
polymer or conventional micro and macro-composites. These improvements can
include high moduli increased strength and heat resistance decreased gas
permeability and flammability and increased biodegradability of biodegradable
polymers.

22
 CHAPTER 3

Material and Methodology

3.1 Material
3.1.1 Powdered Metal After Machining
Metal powders include the particle size distribution, particle shape, the
surface condition and the structure of the powder. These impact bulk properties
such as reactivity, flow ability, compressibility, porosity and hardenability that
all improves as the particle size gets smaller.

Fig 3.1 Metal Powder

3.1.2 Metal Powder Extraction Process

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 Metal powder are extracted from the waste stored in the scrap after
machining process in machine shops. From the scrap the waste is collected and
then it undergoes sieve analysis to extract the metal powder of 150 Microns and
also we can directly collect the well powdered metal waste of grain size 150
microns and below from the grinding process.

Fig 3.2 Extraction of Metal Powder

3.1.3 Sieve Analysis
A Sieve Analysis is a practice or procedure used to assess the particle size
distribution of a granular material by allowing the material to pass through a
series of sieves of progressively smaller mesh size and weighing the amount of
material that is stopped by each sieve as a fraction of the whole mass. A sieve
analysis can be performed on materials including sand, crushed rock, clay,
granite, coal, soil, a wide range of manufactured powder, grain and seeds, down
to a minimum size depending on the exact method.

24
Fig 3.3 Sieve Analysis

25
3.1.4 LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene)
LDPE stands for low-density polyethylene. It is a type of plastic resin that
is commonly used in packaging materials, such as plastic bags and films, as
well as in various household and industrial applications. LDPE is known for its
flexibility, toughness, and low melting point, which make it easy to process and
mold into different shapes. It is also resistant to moisture and chemicals, making
it a popular choice for packaging materials that need to protect their contents
from external factors.

Fig 3.4 Single use waste plastic

3.1.5 Resin and Hardener
The Epoxy Resin LY 556 is extensively used as a reinforcing material
due to its medium viscosity and chemicals resistivity. Property of this resin can
easily be modified within wide limits with the use of fillers and hardeners. The
composition of this resin is based on Bisphenol-A which makes it suitable for
high-performance FRP composite applications such as pultrusion, pressure
molding, and filament winding and so on.
Epoxy hardener HY951 is a Low viscosity, unfilled epoxy casting resin
system, curing at room temperature.

26
3.2 Methodology

Preparation of Composite

Laminate Preparation

Powdered Beverage Bottles Metal Powder

Matrix Reinforcement with various proportions of

metal powder and plastic powder

Composition – 1 Composition – 2
R - 50%, M - 30%, P - 20% R - 50%, M - 20%, P - 30%

Mechanical Testing

Tensile Test Compression Test Flexural Test

Impact Test Micro-Hardness Test

3.3 Preparation of plastic powders out of waste beverage bottles

Conclusion
27
 Abandoned beverage bottles are easily available from hotels, motels,
restaurants and canteens. These bottles are then dried up under sunlight for
several days for the removal of moisture from it. The dried bottles are then
converted into plastic flakes by dropping them into a plastic shredder machine
followed by pulverising them with the help of a pulverizer machine which is
capable of converting these plastic flakes into fine powders. I have chosen this
technique in-order to avoid the toxic fumes ensuing form the heating of plastics

because my project is very much concerned about environment

Fig 3.5 Plastic Powder

3.3.1 Compression Moulding
Compression moulding is a relatively simple process involving pressing
or squeezing a deformable material charge between two halves of a heated
mould and its subsequent transformation into a moulded part after cooling or
curing. Here we applying pressure about 1500 psi and temperature about 90 to
1000C.

(a)Sample 1
(b) Sample 2
Fig 3.6 Mould Plate

28
 CHAPTER 4
Results & Discussion

The results and discussion sections present the research findings and
analysis of those findings. It also contains a conclusion section, which focuses
on practical application or provides a short summary of the research.

4.1 Tensile Test for Polymer Matrix Composite

Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental
materials science and engineering test in which a sample is subjected to a
controlled tension until failure. Properties that are directly measured via a
tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, breaking strength, maximum elongation
and reduction in area. From these measurements the following properties can
also be determined: Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-
hardening characteristics. Uniaxial tensile testing is the most commonly used
for obtaining the mechanical characteristics of isotropic materials. Some
materials use biaxial tensile testing. The main difference between these testing
machines being how load is applied on the materials.
CS Area Peak
Sample No. %Elongation UTS[N/mm2]
[mm2] Load[N]
Composition 1
1 150 1484.008 2.390 9.888
2 150 2111.926 2.450 14.077
3 150 2106.992 2.560 14.048
Composition 2
1 150 3029.014 3.620 20.189
2 150 2919.544 3.730 19.463
3 150 3010.434 2.900 20.071

Tab 4.1 Tensile Test Result

29
 Fig 4.1 Composition 1 Fig 4.2 Composition 2

Graph 4.1 Peak Load Analysis for Tensile Test

Graph 4.2 Elongation Analysis for Tensile Test

4.2 Compression Test

30
 Compression test is a diagnostic procedure that measures the compression
pressure produced by the engine during the compression stroke. It is typically
performed on gasoline and diesel engines to assess the overall health of the
engine and to determine whether there are any issues with the engine's internal
components, such as the pistons, valves, and cylinder head gasket. The test
involves using a compression gauge to measure the amount of pressure
generated by the engine as it compresses the air-fuel mixture inside the
cylinders. The readings obtained from the test can help identify problems such
as worn piston rings, damaged valves, or a blown head gasket. Compression
testing is a very common testing method that is used to establish the
compressive force or crush resistance of a material and the ability of the
material to recover after a specified compressive force is applied and even held
over a defined period of time.
Compressive
Sample No. CS Area [mm2] Peak Load[N]
Strength[N/mm2]
Composition 1
1 150 5316.000 35.444
2 150 3225.930 21.504
3 150 3145.586 20.974
Composition 2
1 150 3485.415 23.240
2 150 5084.376 33.894
3 150 3926.237 26.173
Compression testing is often done to a break (rupture) or to a limit. When
the test is performed to a break, break detection can be defined depending on
the type of material being tested. When the test is performed to a limit, either a
load limit or deflection limit is used.
Tab 4.2 Compression Test Result

31
 Fig 4.3 Composition 1 Fig 4.4 Composition 2

Graph 4.3 Peak Load Analysis for Compression Test

Graph 4.4 Compressive Strength Analysis for Compression Test

32
4.3 Flexural Test
Flexural test is a mechanical test used to determine the flexural properties
of a material. Also known as the bending test, it measures the behavior of a
material when subjected to bending stresses. The test is commonly used on
materials such as plastics, ceramics, metals, and composites to evaluate their
strength and stiffness under a bending load.
In a flexural test, a sample of the material is placed on two supports, and
a load is applied at the centre of the sample. The sample is then bent until it
fractures or reaches a specified deflection point. The amount of force required
to bend the sample and the resulting deflection is measured using a load cell and
a deflection gauge, respectively.
The test results can be used to determine the material's modulus of
elasticity, flexural strength, and flexural modulus. These properties are
important for designing and selecting materials for applications that involve
bending or flexing, such as beams, pipes, and structural components.
Flexural Flexural
CS Area Peak Load
Sample No. Strength Modulus
[mm2] [N]
(MPa) (GPa)
Composition 1
1 150 210.385 0.337 2.763
2 150 217.007 0.348 2.437
3 150 223.344 0.358 2.920
Composition 2
1 150 270.177 0.433 3.020
2 150 299.264 0.480 2.879
3 150 247.389 0.396 2.610

Tab 4.3 Flexural Test Result

33
Fig 4.5 Composition 1 Fig 4.6 Composition 2

Graph 4.5 Peak Load Analysis for Flexural Test

Graph 4.6 Flexural Strength Analysis for Flexural Test

34
4.4 Impact Test
Impact test is a type of mechanical test used to evaluate the ability of a
material to resist sudden, high-force impacts. It measures the amount of energy
absorbed by a material when it is struck by a pendulum or other object. The
impact test is commonly used on materials such as metals, plastics, ceramics,
and composites to evaluate their toughness and resistance to fracture under
high-speed impact loads.
In an impact test, a sample of the material is placed on a support and
struck by a swinging pendulum or another object. The amount of energy
absorbed by the material is measured by the height to which the pendulum
swings after striking the sample. The test can be conducted at various
temperatures to evaluate the material's performance under different conditions.
The test results are used to determine the material's impact strength,
which is a measure of its ability to withstand sudden impacts without fracturing.
The impact strength is an important consideration in selecting materials for
applications such as machinery parts, construction materials, and protective
equipment.

S. No Izod Impact Value in J for 6mm thickness

Composition 1
1 0.20
2 0.25
3 0.30
Composition 2
1 0.35
2 0.25
3 0.30
Tab 4.4 Impact Test Result

35
 Fig 4.7 Composition 1 Fig 4.8 Composition 2

Graph 4.7 Analysis of Impact Test

4.5 Micro-Hardness Test

Micro hardness test is a type of mechanical test used to measure the
hardness of small areas or thin samples of materials. It is commonly used in
metallurgy and materials science to evaluate the mechanical properties of
materials such as metals, ceramics, and polymers.

In micro hardness testing, a small diamond indenter is pressed into the surface
of the material under a carefully controlled load. The size of the indentation is
measured using a microscope, and the hardness of the material is calculated
based on the depth of the indentation and the applied load.

36
 There are several types of micro hardness tests, including Vickers,
Knoop, and Berkovich tests. Each type uses a different type of indenter and a
different method of calculating hardness.
Micro hardness testing is useful for evaluating the mechanical properties
of small or thin samples that cannot be tested using traditional hardness testing
methods. It is also useful for evaluating the hardness and wear resistance of
surface coatings, such as platings and coatings, and for determining the effects
of heat treatment and other material processing methods on the mechanical
properties of materials.
Micro Hardness (Vickers) Average HV
S. No
HV (H) (H)
1 28.96
2 30.38 29.40
3 28.87
4 27.46
5 29.66 29.03
6 29.97
7 32.82
8 27.02 30.43
9 31.46
10 33.79
11 28.48 29.85
12 27.29
13 29.36
14 25.19 26.22
15 24.11
16 37.36
17 36.25 36.76
18 36.66
Table 4.5 Microhardness Test Result

37
Graph 4.8 Analysis for Microharness Test

38
 CHAPTER 5

Conclusion
The polymer matrix composite was reinforced with Metal powder and
single-use waste plastic. We utilised waste plastics in powdered form by

employing a plastic pulverising machine, so there will no need of heating or

melting the plastic and there is no possibility of toxic gases escaping into the
atmosphere that causes air pollution and this is achieved by pulverization
technique that converts plastic flakes into powder or granules. which does not
pollute the environment. As a result, it aids in the reuse of plastics while also
reducing pollution. We created two kind of compositions here. In comparison to
the first type composition, the second type composition has produced a better
result. Since these plastics are mixed with resin it becomes corrosion resistant
and heat resistant and provides a prolonged life to the product. The use of metal
powder adds strength and stiffness to the composite. Since metal are used as a
dispersed phase of reinforcement, it results in producing light weight
components without sacrificing the strength.

39
 CHAPTER 6

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