Displacements using the Castigliano theorem

Method of strain energy

As an example we consider a structural member subjected to a known tensile load P .
L
P P

L+∆

In determining the amount of work done by the load P , it must be understood that the load
is considered to be applied gradually and that the deflection commences as soon as the load
starts to come on the member. For a linear elastic structure, the load–deflection diagram
would be the straight line shown in the figure – at the maximum load P the deflection is ∆.

dp

dδ

0 δ ∆

Suppose at an intermediate stage when the load on the structure has reached a value of p,
the deflection has reached δ.
Suppose also that a further small increment of load dp causes the displacement to increase
by dδ. The work W done by the load during this further increment of load is, to a first
approximation, given by p × dδ, which will be seen to equal the shaded area. It follows that
the load increases from zero to P , the work done by the load is equal to the area of the
triangle under the complete line, thus work done by load P
1
W = P∆
2
By the law of the conservation of energy this work is stored in the structure. From the
earlier courses of the Strength of Materials we know that
PL
∆=
AE
The strain energy U stored in a member subjected to an axial force P is

P 2L
U=
2AE
and it is clearly irrelevant whether P is a positive or negative value.

1
Displacements using the method of strain energy
If a moment M moves through a small angle dθ, the moment remaining constant during this
rotation, the work done by the moment is M dθ.
If a moment increases gradually from zero to M and during this application a total
rotation of θ occurs, the rotation at any stage being proportional to the applied moment.
P P
x

z dx
y dθ

M M
x

dx

The work done on this section by the bending moment (internal forces) is
1
dW = M dθ
2
The following ratio is valid here
dθ M
=
dx EI
Thus,we can write
M
dθ = dx
EI
Substituting it into expression for the work done, we arrive at
1 M2
dW = dx
2 EI
The work done for the entire beam can be obtained by integration of this expression. Ob-
viously, the work done equals to the accumulated strain energy. Thus, the strain energy
stored in the element:
M2
Z
U =W = dx
2EI
L
(In contrast, the strain energy stored in a single member subjected to an axial load is simply
P 2L
).
2AE
Often, both E and I are constant along the length of the beam and the expression would
become:
1
Z
U= M 2 dx
2EI
L

2
Example: Find the strain energy in the beam and the deflection and slope at the point
of the application of the concentrated load P .

x
A
B
L

P L3
3EI

P L2
2EI

Solution: The bending moment at a distance x from the end of the beam:

M = −P x

Thus
L
1 P 2 L3
Z
U= P 2 x2 dx =
2EI 0 6EI
Work done by the load
1
W = P∆
2
As the work done by the load equals the strain energy stored in the beam:

1 P 2 L3 P L3
P∆ = −→ ∆=
2 6EI 3EI
This deflection being in the direction of P . Since
M Px
dθ = dx = dx
EI EI
we have
L
1 P L2
Z
θ= P xdx =
EI 0 2EI

Castigliano and Lagrange theorems.

Consider an elastic system (a simply supported beam) which is subjected to an arbitrary
system of loads Q and some generalized concentrated load P . Let us now calculate the strain
energy of such a system. For this purpose, as well as, for convenience, the following order of
the loading is adopted.

3
 Q

P1 P
q
A B

M
∆P Q ∆P P

First we apply the load P to the system. The displacement directly under the load and
in the same direction is denoted ∆P P . Hereinafter, the first subscript denotes a location
(under load P ) while the second one denotes the cause of this displacement (due to load P ).
Afterwards, we apply the system of loads Q. As a result of an additional deformation the
load P will move further more by a value of ∆P Q . Thus, the total displacement of the point
directly under the load P is
∆P = ∆P P + ∆P Q (1)
Obviously, the total accumulated strain energy is equal to the work of the external forces:
1
U = P ∆P P + P ∆P Q + UQQ (2)
2
where UQQ is the strain energy accumulated only due to the application of the system of
loads Q, which numerically equals the sum of individual forces Q along their corresponding
displacements.
The second item in the expression (P ∆P Q ) does not contain 1/2 because the force P was
doing work without changing its magnitude, it was already there. Putting ∆P P = P δP P the
expression for U can be rewritten as
1
U = P 2 δP P + P ∆P Q + UQQ (3)
2
Here δP P is the displacement at the point of the application of P due to the unit load
(P = 1).
Differentiating (??) with respect to P , taking also into account that ∆P = ∆P P + ∆P Q ,
we arrive at
∂U
= P δP P + ∆P Q = ∆P P + ∆P Q = ∆P (4)
∂P
Therefore
∂U
∆P = (5)
∂P
Castigliano (1875) theorem: Partial derivative of the strain energy with respect
to a force gives the displacement corresponding to that force
The second derivative of the strain energy is
∂ 2U ∂∆P
= = δP P (6)
∂P 2 ∂P
and always positive.

4
 To determine the linear or angular displacement at the point, where, according to the
problem requirements there is no force, it is necessary to apply an imaginary generalized
force. Then, writing down the expression for the strain energy due to the system of forces,
including the imaginary force, differentiate the expression with respect to this imaginary
force. Finally, putting the imaginary force zero gives us the required displacement.
By expressing the strain energy in terms of the independent displacements ∆1 , ∆2 , . . . , ∆n ,
it can be shown that a partial derivative with respect to any of the displacements is equal
to the force acting in the direction of this displacement.
∂U
= Pi (7)
∂∆i
This theorem was proposed by Lagrange.

Bending deflection of beams. We can solve for the deflection in one of two ways, either
Z L
M2

∂U ∂
∆= = dx (8)
∂P ∂P 0 2EI
or
L
∂U M ∂M
Z
∆= = dx (9)
∂P 0 EI ∂P
The last equation is called the Modified Castigliano Theorem.

Cantilever with concentrated load at free end. Determine the displacement at the
free end. At any distance x from the free end, the bending moment is M = P x, therefore
Z L 2 2
∂ P x ∂ P 2 L3 P L3
∆= dx = =
∂P 0 2EI ∂P 6EI 3EI
Alternatively
L L
Px P x2 P L3
Z Z
∆= xdx = dx =
0 EI 0 EI 3EI

Beam simply supported with uniformly distributed load. Determine the displace-
ment at the midspan. At any distance x from the left-hand end the bending moment is

qL qx2
M= x−
2 2
To calculate the displacement at midspan, we apply an imaginary concentrated load P at
this point. Then,
P x qLx qx2
M= + −
2 2 2
and
∂M 1
= x
∂P 2

5
Therefore,
L/2
P x qLx qx2 P L3 5qL4
 
1 x
Z
∆=2 + − dx = +
0 EI 2 2 2 2 48EI 384EI
Putting P = 0, we obtain
5qL4
∆max =
384EI
If we require the deflection due to the point load only, we put q = 0, then

P L3
∆max =
48EI

Example: A simply-supported beam carries a concentrated load at a distance a from the

left-hand support. Determine the deflection of the beam underneath the load.

a P b

A B

P
A C D B

RA RB

The support reactions: RA = P b/L and RB = P a/L. The bending moment at current
point C is RA x. For the portion of beam AD the strain energy is
Z a 2 2 Z a
RA x P 2 b2 2 P 2 b 2 a3
U= dx = 2
x dx =
0 2EI 0 2L EI 6L2 EI

For the portion DB (calculate from right to left):

P 2 a2 b 3
U=
6L2 EI
Total value of U for the beam is
P 2 b 2 a3 P 2 a2 b 3 P 2 a2 b 2 P 2 a2 (L − a)2
U= + = (a + b) =
6L2 EI 6L2 EI 6L2 EI 6LEI
And, deflection underneath the load:

dU P a2 (L − a)2
∆= =
dP 3LEI

6
Displacements using the unit load method
The Modified Castigliano theorem can interpreted slightly different.
Z L
∂U M ∂M
∆= = dx
∂P 0 EI ∂P

After close examination we can see that

∂M
=M
∂P
Where M is the bending moment due to the unit load (P = 1). Thus, the Modified Cas-
tigliano theorem can be given as
Mp M
Z
∆= ds
EI
Where Mp is the bending moment due to the given external load. By using this method
there is no need for dummy load.
To determine a linear displacement at a particular point, a unit load (P = 1)
is applied at this point in the required direction of the displacement (vertical,
horizontal or at an angle). To determine a slope, a unit bending moment
(M = 1) is applied at the point of interest.

Example: Determine the deflection and slope at the free end of the cantilever.

q EI = const

A B
L
qL2
2
Mp

L
1 M1

1
M2
1

Solution: For the original loading, the bending moment Mp at the distance x from the
free-end is
qx2
Mp = −
2
7
For the unit load placed at the position where the deflection is required the bending moment
M 1 on the same element is
M 1 = −1 · x = −x
Thus
ZL ZL
1 1 qx3 qL4
∆A = Mp M 1 dx = dx =
EI EI 2 8EI
0 0

The positive value indicates that it is in the same direction as the unit load.
To determine the slope, we apply a bending moment equalled to one (unit moment) at
the free end, M 2 = 1.

ZL ZL
1 1 qx2 qL3
θA = Mp M 2 dx = − dx = −
EI EI 2 6EI
0 0

The negative sign tell us that the direction of slope θA is opposite to the unit moment, i.e.
counter-clockwise.