Mechanics Total momentum before collision = pi m1 v 1 +m2 v 2.

If totally ∆x
Kinematics: Shear strain = where x is distance top/bottom separated by.
Scalar = magnitude, no direction. Vector = magnitude + direction. 1 inelastic pf =( m1 +m2 ) v f L0
2d p stress
mile = 1.61km a= 2 -> t=√ a x 2 d v after collision = . If collision is head on relative speed of objects Shear modulus =
t m strain
vi + vf d 2 2 Strain on x-axis on stress/strain graphs, measure of deformation.
1 before is the same as after.
v avg= = , v f =v i +2 ad , d= at , m1 v 1 i+ m2 v 2 i=m1 v 1 f + m2 v 2 f Volume strain same as normal strain.
2 t 2 −∆ P
Oscillation and waves:

√
Bulk modulus =
2 KE Hooke’s Law = length change is proportional to restoring force. ∆ V /V 0
v= F=−kx , k is spring constant, x is length change. Average force
m Fluids:
v f =v i +at for constant acceleration 1 2 m F
needed to change length is given by PE=W = k x Density: ρ=
, pressure: P=
1 2 V A
d=v avg t (also works for height) = v t t+ a t 2

√
5
2 KE Patm =1.01 e Pa
Newton 1 = object continues at rest/constant motion until external To find speed find PE and substitute as KE into
v= At equal depths in stationary fluid pressure is equal, pressure applied is
1
force acts on it 2 = external force gives acceleration 3 = equal and m transmitted undiminished to all parts of fluid, exerts pressure in all
opposite reaction, motion still possible because of differing masses. 2 directions. More pressure at bottom.
Horizontal component = force x sin(angle), vertical component = force At either end of oscillation all energy is PE, in middle all KE. Total Force needed to raise another thing at equal depth (hydraulic chair
x cos(angle). Neg. to find angle energy = KE + PE A1
example) found by F 1= x F2
( )
m(v 1+ v 2 ) T
2
A2
F net avg = To find how long it must be for certain T =g
t 2π Change in pressure due to height: ∆ P=−ρg(∆ height ).
Circular Motion: Transverse = oscillation up/down to propagation. Subtract bottom point from top point.
2 πr Longitudinal = oscillation perpendicular to propagation If point 2 on surface it’s atm P. To find absolute pressure
v(avg) = swap v and T to find T A wavelength ( λ ) is the distance (θ ) moved in 1 period, eg. one peak P=P atm + ρgh , -> gauge pressure P g=P−P atm
T ( period)
to the next. Amplitude (A) is the distance from the middle of a wave. For U-tubes with one side open, if one side is lower P is greater on that
1 θ Frequency (f) is number of periods/t
f = ω= ω=2 πf T =2 π √ L/ g(pendulum) side.
T t λ v v Buoyancy:
v= -> λ= -> f= Volume of fluid displaced = volume of displacer. Fluid exerts upward
Friction = f max=μN (coefficient of fric x normal F). f f λ force = weight of fluid displaced. When object is submerged it lightens,
At rest/constant v f=pulling force. Does not depend on area. If super positioned and same λ and A, A doubles. If not same add fluid’s weight increased by inverse amount. Object comes to rest when
Torque = τ =Fd . F 1 d 1=F 2 d 2 when stable peaks/troughs. If out of phase by half they cancel. Waves are reflected mg = buoyant force.
Energy: back when they hit something. Nodes = wave doesn’t move. Antinodes Bouyant Force=ρ f Vg , V is volume of object, ρ f is density
Measured in Joules (J). Work transfers energy. = wave moves lots. Energy increases as the square of the A, so doubling
A quadruples energy. of fluid.
W = KE. Conservative forces = conservation of energy, non-Con = If mg > buoyant force it sinks, if mg < buoyant force it floats
dissipation e.g. friction Solids and Fluids
Stress/Strain: Calculating V of something sinking below water, use formula
Energy lost by friction=PE−KE f Object is elastic if it returns to its original state after stress is applied. mdisplacer v displaced ρobj
W F , = ,
Power is rate of doing work, P= =Fv Stress= . This causes change in length, given by ρwater −ρsinker v object ρ fluid
t A Non-Viscous Fluids:
work out ∆L Stress Incompressible has constant density. Viscosity is internal friction of
η= Strain= . Young’s Modulus = . Only depends on fluid. Laminar flow is fluid layers flowing smoothly past each other in
work output L0 Strain
work ∈¿= ¿ steady pattern. Turbulent flow is irregular with no steady pattern, no
energy used material, symbol γ exact direction.
Momentum: If pipe widens fluid slows, if narrows it speeds up. If radius ½’s speed

( )
2
Symbol p, p=mv , ∆ p=F ∆ t Area of a tube given diameter = π
diameter increases by factor of 4.
Bernoulli: higher speed = less pressure
Elastic = p + KE conserved, inelastic = p conserved 2
Tension/compression found by formulas into stress/strain
 1 2 Ideal Gas = PV =NkT where k = 1.381e -23
and N is total number of Core body temp change
To relate two points in a tube.P+ ρ v + ρgh=constant , total energy lost
2 atoms, found by moles x Avogadros #. Law can also be PV =nRT decrease=
A 1 v1 1 P1 T 2 mass x specific heat cap
A1 v 1= A 2 v 2-> v 2= , ∆ P= ρ ¿ where n is # of moles P 2= Electricity
A2 2 T1 Conductor = free charge movement, insulator = no movement
If height is equal ρgh can be removed. Fastest in the middle (high P), To find P or V given the other, divide other side by it.
( q1 q2 ) k=
slowest at edges (low P) N 1 kT 3 Coulombs law = force between point charges (q), F 1=k
. K Eavg per molecule = k (¿ R)T
2
Viscous Fluids: P∂ =P1 r
V 2

√
Streamline = curve with tangent in direction of velocity k q 1 q 2 for distance between forces
Multiply by N to find total KE of the gas. Lighter molecules have higher 9x109. r =
v vavg than heavier molecules
Shear stress causes top layer to move, calculate w/ where L is fluid F
L Q Electric field, for +ve charge field and force = same direction, for -ve
thickness. Bottom stays stationary. Heat for phase change: Q=mL (L is latent heat) L=
For lam flow of incomp, visc in pipe fluid flows from high to low P
m field and force = opposite. Charge goes from + to -, lines never cross,
close
proportionally to the P difference, resistance increases with viscosity, Q=mc ∆ T =Pt (used for “heat required” questions -> =
length, and decrease in radius. m1 c 1 T 1 +m2 c2 T 2
∆ Pπ r
4 T final= c = heat capacity
Poiseuille’s law: V flow rate /F= l is length, η is (m1 c 1 +m2 c2 )
8 ηl Q positive when energy added, negative when removed
viscous
∆Q
4
∆ Pπ r , ∆ P= 1 ρ v 2− 1 ρ v 2 Rate of heat transfer (conduction) = =k ¿ ¿. If two slabs of
l= , ∆T
8 Fη 2 2 2 1 same area, rate is the same. k is thermal conductivity, T is temp
1 1 1 1 difference between surfaces. k can also be thickness eg. sleeping bag
l= v , l= v Radiation: One surface = 4
Aσε T , σ = Stef-Bolt constant, ε is
2 2 4 4 strong ve. Force on charge = QE, E=field strength. Strength at distance r
emissivity. Two surfaces = hrad A ∆ T

()
4
1 kQ
If don’t know values for a % reduction use eg. 0.8 (-20%) mwater c water ( T f −T water i ) +mice c water ( T f −0 ° C ) + mice L f =0 -> E= 2
Q=source charge
r r
1 Law Thermo = ∆ U =Q−W for objects,
st
Pressure at inlet greater than at outlet Electric potential =U. ∆ U A → B=Q ∆ V where V is
Reynold’s # used to determine whether lam/turb. Calculated by ∆ U =Q−W + E for living, where U is internal energy, E is food ∆U
ρvL en. change between two points, VB-VA. EPE=∆ U , ∆ V = ,
ℜ= . Small η means Re is large Q
η W
Body η= , Q=W −( E−∆ U ) kQq
If Re < 2000 laminar, if Re > 3000 turbulent E−∆ U V =Ed . High electric PE closest to + charge. U =
x rms =√ 2 D AB t is average movement of species A diffusing in work out r
Find E consumed, if have η rearrange η= , Q
D AB is the diffusion constant for those molecules.
species B, where work input Capacitance is stored energy between 2 plates, C= , Q=CV
AD ( P1−P2 ) W V
Rate of diffusion = P= (amount of stored charge), potential diff created.
d T
A ε0 εr A ε
vapour pressure of water C=ε = 0= 8.854x10 , ε r=relative permittivity
Thermodynamics -12

Temp = measure of hot/cold. Heat = transferred thermal energy. Relative humidity =

saturated vapour pressure d d
Thermal expansion can be linear, surface or volume Parallel (increases area) = C1+C2+C3, series (decreases C) =
If given dew point and dry bulb temp, go across axis from where the
∆ L=L0 α ∆ T , ∆ A= A0 2 α ∆ T , ∆ V =V 0 3 α ∆ T 1 1 1 1
100% lines up with dew point to find where it intersects with dry bulb = + + . Changing C changes frequency, increase A or
Water most dense at 4C, more above, less below temp. C C1 C 2 C 3
4 3 decrease d to increase C. Energy in capacitor given by
V sphere = π r A surfacesphere =4 π r 2 2
3 QV Q 1 2
U= = = CV
2 2C 2
 ∆Q 1 1 1 h −d and E0 =13.6 eV .
I= direction of I follows + charge, opposite to electron flow P= = + , m= i = i
( )
∆t f di d0 h0 d 0 2 1 1
Voltage splits in series, constant in parallel. Current splits in parallel, Energy between levels = ∆ E=En 2−E n 1=Z E0 − 2
1 1 2
n1 n2
constant in series. Pmax = +
V V near point lens−retina distance which is
Resistance, V =IR → R= → I = , good conductors have
I R 1 1 also the energy emitted by photon transitioning from upper n2 energy
Pmin = + level to lower n2 energy level.
l far point l−s d istance 2
small R, bad have high R. R=ρ where ρ is material. Power Strength of glasses will fill
Amu = atomic mass units, converted to E via E=m c
A difference between eyes and Nucleon = proton/neutron Isotope = same # protons, diff. neutrons.
2 Isotone = Same # neutrons, diff. protons. Isomer = different energy
across resistor = P=VI =
V 2 54D/50D
=I R Diffraction is bending of wave, state. Isobar = same # nucleons, diff. protons
R more diffraction smaller the Strong nuclear force = short range stronger than electrostatic.
Current into junction = current out, sum of all potential diff = 0, aperture. Minima = Fusion = joins small -> large stable nuclei, need high temp
1 1 Fission = breaking larger into smaller nuclei
I 1=I 2+ I 3. Resistance series = R1 + R2, parallel = + mλ=Dsinθ where θ is angle Nuclear mass = atomic mass – electrons.
R 1 R2 of the ray from perpendicular (centre line) to the slit, D is width of the Mass of proton = 1.673 x 10-27 kg. Mass of electron = 9.109 x 10-31 kg.

( mDλ )
Charging: potential diff and charge increase before levelling. I Mass of neutron = 1.675 x 10-27 kg.
−1
decreases, initially the highest. aperture. θ=sin
RC circuits T=RC, takes 5 time constants to fully (dis)charge. 1T= 63% Alpha radiation is made of helium nuclei (2pro+2neut), causes mass (A)
charged, 2T=86%, 1T=37% discharged, T2=14%, 0.37 T to decrease by 4 and Z to decrease by 2. Slowed considerably by
λL
−t −t For 1st minima y= , L is distance to screen and y is distance from collisions, causes surface level ionisation of body.
T
q=q 0 e V =V 0 e T for charge/V at specific time, where q0 is D Beta radiation is low mass, loses E rapidly, mass doesn’t change. Travel
midline up/down screen. Minimum angle of resolution = at 90% speed of light
q0 λ
charge when full, t=time since (dis)charge began. Initial V = θ=1.22 which is then followed by using s=rθ where s is
0
C D Gamma radiation is photons, tiny so nothing changes.
−λ t
Optics distance between objects and r is distance to object Decay of nuclei given by N (t )=N 0 e where N 0 is initial
Angle of incidence measured relative to vertical line through mid. Radiation
number of

( )
n2 sin θ2 Nuclear physics = nucleus, goes from unstable -> stable releasing
−1 nuclei, t is time and λ is the decay constant.
n1 sin θ1=n 2 θ2 (change in direction), θ1=sin energy as radiation. Electrons change energy levels if given energy and
n1 release photons. Photon energy = E=hf where h=6.6 e−34, f is Nuclear activity given by A=−λ N , decay of activity
−λ t

( )
n1 c c A=A 0 e .
, θc =sin
−1
(internal reflection) , n= . frequency. First energy level is biggest, gradually decreases. f= ,
n2 v λ A0 =λ N 0. Unit of A is Becqerel (Bq) but use Ci more
c = speed of light in vacuum (3x108), v is h 1 0.693
λ= where h is mass of electron 6.6e . -34
Half life given by T =
thru a medium. nair = 1. Critical angle for ρ 2 λ
water = 48.6 ° E hf Deterministic effects of radiation kill cells. Stochastic effects doesn’t
Momentum of photons = ρ= = . kill, mutates.
c c ∆E

√
2 E. Absorbed dose = D= . D is measured in Gy. 1Gy = 100rad
Electrostatic PE given by U =qV . Velocity given by v= m
m Rem = (rad x RBE)
1 eV = 1.602x10-19 J. 1 Sv = (1Gy x RBE)
2 1 Sv = 100 rem
Allowed radii of orbitals = r n =N ab where a =Bohr’s constant
B

-11
5.29e
2
−Z
Energy of allowed orbitals = En = 2 E0 where Z = atomic
n
number
K α is the X-ray emitted when n=2 -> n=1
15 2
Frequency of K → f =2.47 x 10 x ( Z−1 )
α
Where Z is the atomic number