Grade 8 Chemistry Workbook

ISCS Secondary Science Department

2018-2019

Student name: ______________ Class: _______ F# ________

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 Contents Page

Title page
Elements, compounds and mixtures 2

Properties of metals and non-metals 6

Chemical reactions 11

Rates of chemical reactions 13

Mixtures and separating techniques 17

Acids and alkalis 27

Structure of atoms and particles 33

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 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

Atom: The simplest particles of matter are called atoms (which is dividable).
Molecules: In many substances the atoms are held together (chemical reaction) in
groups called molecules. Oxygen and nitrogen are molecules that have two atoms
joined together.
Examples: water, carbon dioxide…

Elements: All substances are made up of atoms. If they are made up of one kind of
atom, like argon, oxygen and nitrogen they are called elements. Atoms and elements
are the building blocks of all matter.
Examples: Gold, silver, calcium…
Elements are simple substances.
You cannot split an element up into anything simpler using a chemical reaction.
They are all listed in a table called the periodic table (see page 206 TEXT BOOK).

Figure 1: Atoms of argon

Figure 2: Molecules of Nitrogen

Figure 3: Molecules of carbon dioxide

Mixture: If elements or substances are physically combined (not chemically

combined) it forms a mixture.
Example: water and salt, milk, pizza…..

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Air: Air is made up of tiny particles.
However, the air we breathe is not pure. It contains a mixture of gases, including

nitrogen, oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide. These different substances have

different properties, as they are made up of different types of particle.

Figure 4: Percentage composition of air

Test Your Knowledge:

There are many gases in the air. Oxygen exists as oxygen molecules, which contain two oxygen
atoms. Carbon dioxide also exists as molecules. Carbon dioxide molecules contain two oxygen
atoms, which are separated by one carbon atom. Nitrogen exists as molecules in a similar way to
oxygen. Argon gas exists as single atoms of the element.

1 Draw diagrams of all the gases mentioned in the paragraph. You will need some way of
showing the difference between the atoms of different elements.

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2 State how many different types of atoms are shown in each of your diagrams?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....

3 a Which of the gases are compounds?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b How does your diagram show this?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4 Hospitals often buy in cylinders of pure oxygen to help people who cannot breathe very well.
Explain how pure oxygen is different from oxygen in air?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..………………………..

5 Another gas sometimes found in the air is sulfur dioxide. Do you think that sulfur dioxide is an
element or a compound? Explain your reasoning. (Application of knowledge)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Concept Map:
1 Complete the concept map below to classify different types of matter.

2 Draw a diagram of each of the molecules described in the boxes below. You will need some
way of showing the difference between atoms of the different types of elements.

a Water molecules contain one oxygen atom joined to two hydrogen atoms, which form an angle
of 105° between them.(Use protractor)

b Boron trifluoride molecules contain one boron atom joined to three fluorine atoms. The three
fluorine atoms are equally spaced out with angles of 120° between them.
Symbol of boron is “B” and fluorine is “F”.

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 The air we breathe is made up of a mixture of gases. The proportion of each gas is indicated by
the number of particles in each image. Drag the labels to the correct image to identify the gas and
whether it contains atoms or molecules

Figure7:........................... Figure8:...........................
Figure6:............................ ... ...
..

Carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen and argon.

Figure 5:.................................

Properties of metals and non-metals:

PROPERTY Meta Metals Non-Non-Metals
Appearance Shiny Dull

State at room Solid (except mercury, About half are solids, about
temperature which is a liquid at room half are gases, and one
temperature) (bromine) is a liquid
Density High (they feel heavy for Low (they feel light for their
their size) size)
Strength Strong Weak

Malleable or Malleable (they bend Brittle (they break or shatter

brittle without breaking) when hammered)

Conduction of Good Poor (they are insulators)

heat

Conduction of Good Poor (they are insulators,

electricity apart from graphite)

Magnetic Only iron, cobalt and None

material nickel

Sound when hit They make a ringing sound They make a dull sound
(they are sonorous)

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Malleable: It means that metals can be bent and shaped when hammered without
breaking.  

Figure 1: Layers of particles can slide over each other when force is applied.

Brittle: Breaking readily with a comparatively smooth fracture, as glass.

Test Your Knowledge & Understanding:

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3. Complete the word that describes the property of the material being used, and which is
important for the use shown.

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Investigating properties:
Working with others, your task is to investigate the properties and uses of a group of elements
and produce a joint presentation on your chosen group. Choose a group of elements that are
linked in some way so there is a common theme to the project. The final presentation can be in
the form of an information booklet, poster or PowerPoint presentation.

Whatever method you choose, it should be as attractive and informative as possible with the
same style and content for each element investigated. The first task is to plan which elements
you are going to research, the theme linking the elements and what information you want to
include in the presentation. Possible types of information to research for each element include:
● Name, atomic number and symbol.
● Position in periodic table.
● Whether it is a metal or non-metal.
● Description of appearance (including a drawing or photograph).
● Melting point and boiling point.
● State at room temperature.
● Properties of conduction of heat and electricity.
● Properties of strength, flexibility, brittleness.
● Any hazards associated with use of the element.
● Main uses and importance.
● Amount used each year and cost.
● Years of supply left or if unlimited supplies are available.

Compounds:

Atoms of different elements can join together in chemical reactions to form

compounds. For example hydrogen and oxygen are elements. They react together
to form water.

Properties of compounds:
The properties of compounds are usually very different from the properties of the
elements they contain. For example hydrogen and oxygen are both gases at room
temperature, but water is a liquid.

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 Chemical Reactions
Chemical bonds:
The atoms in a compound are chemically joined together by strong forces
called bonds.

Chemical formulae:

Remember that we use chemical symbols to stand for the elements. For
example, C stands for carbon, O stands for oxygen, S stands for sulphur
and Na stands for sodium. For a molecule we use the chemical symbols of the atoms
it contains to write down its formula.

Literacy:
Formula and formulae
The word 'formulae' ("form-u-lee") is the plural of 'formula'. If we have more than one
formula, we don't say formulas, we say formulae.

Numbers in formulae:
If the molecule contains more than one atom of an element we use numbers to show
this. The numbers are written below the element symbol. For example, the formula
for carbon dioxide is CO2 . It tells you that each molecule has one carbon atom and
two oxygen atoms.

Take care when writing these formulae. The small number go at the bottom. For
example CO2 is correct but CO2 /CO2 is wrong.

Naming compounds:
Compounds are often named after their elements:
 If one of the elements in the compound is a metal, its name goes first
 The non-metal at the end of the compound's name has its name changed so
that it ends in -ide.
 If a compound contains two elements plus oxygen, then the ending

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 of the name of one element is changed to -ate. The -ate means 'with
oxygen'. For example, a compound containing zinc, sulfur and oxygen
is called zinc sulfate.

For example, chlorine reacts with copper to form copper chloride. Silicon and
hydrogen are both non-metals and they react to form silicon hydride.

A chemical reaction always forms one or more new substances.

Typical signs of a chemical reaction include:
 a colour change,
 a gas being given off,
 a solid forming
 Heat being given off or taken in.
 Precipitate (solid is formed in liquid solutions).

We can use these signs as criteria to decide whether a chemical reaction has
occurred.

Chemical reactions can be described using models called word equations. The
reactants (what you start with) are shown on the left. An arrow points to the
products (the new substances formed) on the right.
The word equation for the reaction between iron metal and powdered sulfur is:

iron + sulfur iron sulfide

(Reactants) (Product)
Notice that only the chemical names are included in a word equation.
Thermal decomposition:
Elements can form compounds in chemical reactions and the reverse can also
happen. When heat is used to break down a compound the reaction is called a
thermal decomposition.
This type of reaction is used in many industries, including the extraction of metals
from their compounds (in ores).
mercury oxide mercury + oxygen

(Reactants) (Product)

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 Oxidation Reaction:

Oxidation is the gain of oxygen by a substance. For example, magnesium is oxidised

when it reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide:

magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

Rusting
Iron and steel rust when they come into contact with water and oxygen: this is a
form of corrosion. Both water and oxygen are needed for rusting to occur. Rusting
is an oxidation reaction.
Combustion of fuel is another example of oxidation.

Rates of chemical reactions

The rate of a reaction is a measure of how quickly a reactant is used up, or
a product is formed.
For a chemical reaction to happen:

 reactant particles must collide with each other

 the particles must have enough energy for them to react

Factors effecting rates:

 Temperature
 Pressure
 Concentration
 Surface area

Temperature: If the temperature of the reaction mixture is increased:

 reactant particles move more quickly

 the energy of the particles increases
 the frequency of successful collisions between reactant particles increases
 therefore the rate of reaction increases

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 Pressure (only for gases): If the pressure of a reacting gas is increased:

 the reactant particles are closer together

 the frequency of collisions between reactant particles increases
 therefore the rate of reaction increases

Concentration: If the concentration (number of particles) of a reacting solution is

increased:

 the reactant particles are closer together

 the frequency of collisions between reactant particles increases
 therefore the rate of reaction increases
Surface area:

Dividing lumps

For a given mass of a solid, large lumps have smaller surface area to volume ratios

than smaller lumps or powders. If a large lump is divided or ground into a powder:

 its total volume stays the same

 the area of exposed surface increases
 the surface area to volume ratio increases
Lumps versus powders

The greater the frequency of successful collisions, the greater the rate of

reaction. If the surface area to volume ratio of a reacting solid is increased:

 more reactant particles are exposed at the surface

 the frequency of collisions between reactant particles increases
 therefore the rate of reaction increases

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 Test Your Knowledge & Understanding:

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Mixtures and Separating Techniques

A mixture contains two or more substances jumbled together. There are different
kinds of mixture:
Suspension:
The solids settle out of the mixture over time.
Colloid:
The solid pieces are smaller so they don't settle out, and the mixture looks cloudy
or opaque.
Solution: the solids break up into such small pieces that they are not visible, and
the mixture is transparent.

Solutions:
Some solids dissolve in water to make a solution. These solids are soluble. A
solution is made from a solute (usually a solid) and a solvent (liquid). Some gases,
such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, can also dissolve in water.

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Substances that do not dissolve in a solvent are insoluble. When an insoluble
substance is mixed with water, the mixture formed may be a suspension or a
colloid. The total mass of a solution equals the mass of solvent added to the mass
of solute.

Water dissolves many different solutes. Other liquids (e.g. white spirit, ethanol)
can also be used as solvents. Solutes that are insoluble in water may dissolve in
other solvents.
If you keep adding solutes to a solvent, you will get to a point where no more will
dissolve. The solution is saturated with solute. More solid may dissolve if you add
more solvent (e.g. water) or increase the temperature.
The solubility of a solute is the amount that will dissolve in a fixed amount of
solvent at a particular temperature.

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Interpreting a chromatogram

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Chromatograms help to identify substances in a mixture.
This paper chromatogram shows that A, B, C and D are all single substances and
that X is a mixture of C and D.

Evaporation and boiling:

Evaporation is when a liquid turns to a gas at its surface.
● It happens at any temperature.
● It is faster when the temperature is higher.
When a liquid boils,
All the liquid is trying to turn into a gas at the same time.
● Boiling happens at the liquid's boiling point.
● Gas formed inside the liquid makes bubbles that rise to the surface.
● The boiling point of pure water is 100 °C.

Heating with a Bunsen burner

The air hole of a Bunsen burner can be adjusted to give different kinds of flame.
Each kind is useful for different things.

Safety flame: This flame is used This flame is used

should always be for gentle heating. for rapid heating.
used when not
Questions/Work sheet:
heating.
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 [3 marks]

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 Acids and Alkalis

Acids:
● Common substances at home that contain acids include: citric acid, vinegar, fizzy
drinks and car battery acid.
● Acids have a sour taste.
● Most concentrated acids are corrosive. If they are added to water they become
more dilute. Dilute acids are less hazardous. Many dilute acids are irritant.
Alkalis:
● Common substances at home that contain alkalis include: toothpaste, drain
cleaner, oven cleaner.
● Many alkalis are metal hydroxide solutions.
● An alkali can be described as a soluble base. A base is any substance, soluble or
insoluble, that neutralises an acid forming a salt and water.
Indicators:
● Indicators change colour and can be used to detect acids, alkalis and neutral
solutions.
● Litmus is a common indicator.

pH scale
● A numbered scale from 1 to 14.
●Acids have a pH less than 7. The lower the pH, the more acidic the substance is.
The lower the pH, the more hazardous the acid is.
● Neutral solutions have pH 7.

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● Alkalis have a pH more than 7. The higher the pH, the more alkaline the
substance is. The higher the pH, the more hazardous the alkali is.

Neutralisation:
● This is a reaction between an acid and an alkali. acid + alkali → salt + water
● It is also a reaction between an acid and a base. acid + base → salt + water
Word equation
● This summarises a reaction by writing the names of the substances you start
with and the names of the new substances that are made.
● Reactants are the substances you start with and are written on the left side of
the word equation.
● Products are the new substances that are made and are written on the right side
of the word equation.
● There is an arrow between the reactants and products. The arrow means ‘react
to form’. Do not write an equals sign, =.
● For example hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water
Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide are the reactants. Sodium chloride and
water are the products. Notice the arrow between the reactants and the products.

Neutralisation in everyday life

● Antacids are indigestion remedies. People take these medicines if they have
indigestion caused by too much acid in the stomach. The antacid contains a base
that neutralises the extra acid.
● Soil can become too acidic for some crops to grow. Farmers spread lime (a base)
on the soil to neutralise the acid.
● Toothpaste contains a mild alkali to neutralise the acid in our mouths.
● Alkalis are used to neutralise the acidic gases coming out of power stations.
● Sulfuric acid reacts with iron oxide in rust and removes it from the surface of
an object.

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Questions/Work sheet:

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 Structure of Atoms and Periodic Table

Structure of atoms and molecules:

All substances are made from atoms. Each atom is made of a nucleus - containing
protons and neutrons - surrounded by electrons.
Protons and electrons are oppositely charged. Neutrons have no charge. This means the
nucleus of an atom is always positively charged.
An atom has a neutral overall charge because it has the same number of electrons as
protons.

Comparing the charge and mass of electrons, protons and neutrons

Proton Neutron Electron

Charge +1 0 -1
Mass 1 1 0.0005 (almost zero)

The atomic number (also called the proton number)

is the number of protons in an atom.
The mass number (also called the nucleon number)
is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
The elements are arranged in the periodic table in ascending order of atomic number so
it's easy to find the name or symbol for an atom if you know the atomic number.

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 In the modern periodic table:

 Elements are arranged in rows, called periods, in order of increasing atomic

number
 Period number gives us information about the total number of electronic shells in
an atom.
 Elements with similar properties are placed in vertical columns, called groups.
 Group number gives us information about the total number of electrons in the
last electronic shell (valance shell/outer shell).
 Atoms in the same group have same chemical but different physical
properties.

Atomic structure and the periodic table:

Elements in group 1 and group 2 are metals. Atoms of group 1 elements have one electron in
their outer shell, and atoms of group 2 elements have two electrons in their outer shell.

Elements in groups 6, 7 and 0 are non-metals .

Electronic structures and the periodic table

The electronic structure of an element is linked to its position on the periodic table.

Electronic structure feature Link to the periodic table

Number of shells Period number

Number of electrons in outermost shell Group number

Numbers added together Atomic number

The electronic structure of sodium (2,8,1) shows that sodium, Na:

 is in period 3
 is in group 1
 has an atomic number of (2 + 8 + 1) = 11

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Questions/Work sheet:
1

The electronic structures of the atoms of five elements are shown below:

Which element is a metal in the same group of the periodic table as element A?

2
The electronic structure of an element is related to its position in the periodic table.

Draw one line to match each group to the electronic structure of one of its elements.

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 3

Use words and numbers from the list to complete the sentences. 

 +1
 0
 Electrons
 Neutrons
 -1
 Nucleus

Atoms are made up of sub-atomic particles. Protons are in the ______ of an atom. Their

relative charge is ______. The particles that move around outside the nucleus are called

______. Their relative charge is ______.

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