Chapter 3:

Atoms, elements and Compounds

3.01: The Atom
Terms:
Atom: The smallest particle of an element and cannot be broken down further.
Sub-atomic particles

Terms:
Proton Number (atomic number): The number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom.
Nucleon number (mass number): The total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.

Carbon sub-atomic particles:

Electrons 6
Protons 6
Neutrons 8
Proton Number (number of protons) 6
Nucleon Number (protons+neutrons) 14
Chromium sub-atomic particles (Do it yourself!):
Electrons
Protons
Neutrons
Proton Number (number of protons)
Nucleon Number (protons+neutrons)

*An atom is neutral because the number of protons (positive charge) is equal to
the number of electrons (negative charge).

3.02: Isotopes
Terms:
Isotopes: Atoms of the same element which have the same proton number but a
different nucleon number.

Isotopes Neutrons Protons Electrons

hydrogen-1 0 1 1
deuterium 1 1 1
tritium 2 1 1
*From the table, we can see that isotopes are atoms of the same element, have
same proton number and different nucleon number.

Terms:
Radioactive isotope: An isotope with an unstable nucleus.
Uses:
Medical uses: cancer treatment, treatment for an overactive thyroid gland,
generation of electric current in heart pacemakers, sterilising medical equipment,
location of tumours.
Industrial uses: measuring and controlling thickness of paper, measuring fluid flow
and locating leaks in pipelines, measuring engine wear, energy generation in
nuclear power stations.
*You only need to know one use of each, and be able to distinguish between a
medical use and an industrial use.
*Radioactive isotopes have same chemical properties, because they have the
same number of outer shell electrons. However, they have slight differences in
physical properties, because they have a different nucleon number.
Electronic distribution of the atoms of different elements.

*The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons, and the second and third shells can hold
up to 8 electrons.

3.03: Ions
Terms:
Ion: An electrically charged particle formed from an atom or group of atoms by
loss or gain of electrons.

• Positive ion: formed by the loss of one or more electrons. It’s positively
charged because the number of protons is greater than the number of
electrons. For example:

• Negative ion: formed by the gain of one or more electrons. It’s negatively
charged because the number of electrons is greater than the number of
protons. For example:
Sample Question
The table below gives the composition of six particles which are either atoms or
ions.
particle number of protons number of neutrons number of electrons
A 33 40 33
B 19 20 18
C 34 45 36
D 33 42 33
E 13 14 13
F 24 28 21

(a) Which particles are atoms? Explain your choice.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….[2]
(b)Which particle is a negative ion and why has this particle got a negative
charge?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….[2]
(c )Which particles are positive ions?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….[1]
(d)Explain why particle A and particle D are positive ions.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….[2]
[Total: 7]
 3.04: Physical and Chemical Changes
Terms:
Physical Change: where there is no change in the substance. For example:
boiling, melting and density.
Chemical Change: where there is a change in the substance. For example:
carbon + oxygen –> carbon dioxide
solid element (carbon) reacts to give a gaseous compound (carbon dioxide), so
the substance reacting is completely different from the substance produced
(chemical change).

3.05: Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

Terms:
Element: A substance containing only one type of atom. For example: all elements
in the periodic table.
Compound: A substance made up of two or more different atoms (or ions) bonded
together. For example, CO2, H2O.
Mixture: An impure substance which contains two or more different components.
For example, tap water, seawater, petroleum and air.
Compound (pure substance) Mixture (impure substance)
composition has a fixed ratio of atoms can have any composition
cannot be separated by physical means can be separated by physical means
physical properties are different from physical properties e.g. colour, density,
the elements from which they are are the average of the substances in
made the mixture
compounds are formed by a chemical when mixtures are formed, there is no
change chemical change
heat is absorbed or released when a heat is not usually absorbed or
compound is formed released when a mixture is formed
(except when substances dissolve to
form solutions
3.06: Metals and Non-metals
Physical differences between metals and non-metals
Physical Property Metals Non-metals
electrical and heat conducts do not conduct
conduction (exception-carbon as
graphite)
lustre (shininess) lustrous dull surface (exceptions-
iodine and graphite)
malleability (can be malleable not malleable; brittle
beaten into different when hit
shapes)
ductility (can be drawn ductile not ductile; break easily
into wires) when a pulling force is
applied
sonorous (make a ringing sonorous (there are not sonorous; make a dull
sound when hit) exceptions) sound when hit

Chemical differences between metals and non-metals

Chemical Property Metals Non-metals
oxides Many metallic oxides are Many non-metallic oxides
basic. are acidic.
reaction with acids Many metals react with Most non-metals do not
acids to produce react with acids.
hydrogen.
formation of ions When metals react, they Non-metals form
form positive ions by negative ions by gaining
losing electrons. electrons. (Hydrogen is
an exception because it
can form positive ions.)
3.07: Alloys
Terms:
Alloy: A mixture of a metal with another element or elements.
An alloy can either be a:
- Mixture of metals (e.g. brass composed of copper and zinc)
OR
- Mixture of metal and non-metal (e.g. iron and carbon, if the carbon content
is increased, the mixture becomes harder and more brittle.)

*Metals are malleable, but alloys are less malleable because in a metal, atoms of
same element and particle size easily slide over each other, but in an alloy,
atoms of different elements and different particle sizes cannot slide over each
other.
*Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, and has several types depending on amount
of iron and carbon present in the mixture. These include:
Type Property Use(s)
Mild steel not brittle car bodies, chains
Stainless steel tough, doesn’t corrode cutlery
3.08: Types of Bonds
There are four types of bonds:
1. Ionic bonds
2. Simple Covalent bonds
3. Giant Covalent bonds
4. Metallic bonds

Ionic bonds
Terms:
Ionic bonds: The bond between a metal and a non-metal with strong electrostatic
attractions between opposite ions.

How to draw magnesium chloride, MgCl2?

------->
Ionic lattice: regular shape with alternative positive and negative ions (giant ionic
structure). For example, NaCl. (see below)
Boiling and melting points in ionic compounds
Ionic compounds have a high melting and boiling points because they have strong
electrostatic attractions between positive and negative ions, therefore it requires a
high amount of energy to be broken.

Electrical Conductivity
Solid ionic compounds cannot conduct electricity because there are no free ions.
Ionic compounds can conduct electricity when molten or aqueous (dissolved in
water) because the ions are free to move.
Simple Covalent bonds
Terms:
Covalent bond: bond between two or more non-metals, sharing one or more pairs
of electrons.
For further explanation (credits to external sources):
Covalent bond formed between non-metal atoms by sharing electrons to achieve
stable outer shells like noble gases.
Hint: In a covalent bond, the shared electrons are attracted to the nuclei of both
atoms.

1) Hydrogen molecule, H2.

A hydrogen atom has only one shell, with one electron. The shell can hold
two electrons, When two hydrogen atoms get close enough, the shells
overlap and then they can share electrons. Like this:

So each has gained a full shell of two electrons, like helium atoms.
2) Chlorine molecule, Cl2.
A chlorine atom needs a share in one more electron, to obtain a stable outer
shell of eight electrons. So two chlorine atoms bond covalently like this:

Since only one pair of electrons is shared, the bond between the atoms is
called a single covalent bond, or just a single bond. You can show it in a short
way by a single line, like this: Cl – Cl.
3) Oxygen molecule, O2.
An oxygen atom has six outer electrons, so needs a share in two more. The
two oxygen atoms share two electrons each, giving molecules with formula
O2. Each atom now has a stable outer shell of eight electrons:

Since the oxygen atoms share two pairs of electrons, the bond between
them is called a double bond. You can show it like this: O = O.
4) Nitrogen molecule, N2.
A nitrogen atom has five outer electrons, so needs a share in three more. So
two nitrogen atoms share three electrons each, giving molecules with the
formula N2. Each atom now has a stable outer shell of eight electrons.

Since the nitrogen atoms share three pairs of electrons, the bond between
them is called a triple bond. You can show it like this: N ≡ N.

Covalent Compounds
A huge number of compounds also exist as molecules. In a molecular
compound, atoms of different elements share electrons. The compounds are
called covalent compounds. Here are three examples:
1) Hydrogen chloride, HCl.

The chlorine atom shares one electron with the hydrogen atom.
2) Water, H2O.

The oxygen atom shares two electrons with the two hydrogen atoms.
3) Methane, CH4.

The carbon atom shares electrons with four hydrogen atoms.

Methane molecule is tetrahedral in shape, because the four pairs of
electrons around carbon repel each other, and move as far apart as
possible.

In water molecule, the hydrogen atoms are closer together than in

methane. This is because the two non-bonding pairs of atoms repel more
strongly than the bonding pairs. So they push these closer together. The
angle between the hydrogen atoms in water is 104.5°.
4) Ammonia, NH3.

Each nitrogen atom shares electrons with three hydrogen atoms. The
molecule is shaped like a pyramid.
5) Ethanol, CH3-CH2-OH.

6) Carbon dioxide, CO2 [O = C = O].

The carbon atom shares all four of its electrons; two with each oxygen
atom. So all three atoms gain stable shells. The two sets of bonding
electrons repel each other. They move as far apart as they can, giving a
linear molecule. All the bonds are double bonds, so we can show the
molecule like this: O = C = O.
7) Ethene, C2H4.

Each carbon atom shares its four electrons this time. It shares two with
two hydrogen atoms, and two with another carbon atom, giving a carbon-
carbon double bond.
How to write the formula?
Example: CaCl2 Ca2+ Cl-

1 2
CaO Ca2+ O2-

2 2
*The 2s will cancel each other out.
State at room temperature
They are usually liquids or gases at r.t.p. because the molecules are not tightly
bonded like in solids, therefore they can move more freely.
Boiling and melting points in covalent compounds
Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points because the
intermolecular forces between molecules are weak and thus need a low amount of
energy to be broken.
They can evaporate easily as well, since they have low boiling points.
Electrical Conductivity
Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity because there are no free ions or
electrons.
Solubility in water
Most of simple covalent molecules are insoluble in water, but soluble in organic
solvents e.g. ethanol.
Giant covalent structures (Macromolecules)
Terms:
Allotropes: Same element with different structures. For example: Allotropes of
carbon are diamond and graphite. Both are made of the same element (carbon),
but they have different structures.

Graphite
One carbon atom shares three of its outer shell electrons with the other carbon
atoms to form a layer structure.
The fourth electron is free to move (and so graphite can conduct electricity), it
exists between the layers.

*Each carbon atom becomes part of a flat hexagonal ring.

The covalent bonds within the layers are strong but the layers are held together by
weak forces.
Properties of graphite:
- Has a very high melting point.
- Soft and slippery because the layers slide over each other easily.
 - Is a good conductor of electricity because it has free electrons.
- Insoluble in water.
Uses of graphite:
- Lubricant for engines and locks
- Used in making pencils
- Used in making electrodes for electrolysis
Diamond
One carbon atom shares all the four outer shell electrons with the other carbon
atoms to form a 3D lattice.

*Each carbon atom forms a tetrahedron with four other carbon atoms.
All the covalent bonds are strong and identical.
Properties of diamond:
- Has a very high melting point
- Is a very hard substance
- Doesn’t conduct electricity because there are no free-moving electrons in
the structure.
- Is insoluble in water
Uses of diamond:
- Used in cutting
- Drilling
- Making jewelry
Silicon (IV) Oxide, SiO2
It has a similar structure to diamond.
It occurs naturally as quartz, with the main mineral being sand.
It forms a giant covalent structure, just like diamond.

Each silicon atom bonds covalently to four oxygen atoms, and each oxygen
atom bonds covalently to two silicon atoms. This leads to the formation of a
very hard substance with a very high melting point, 1710°C.
Special properties leading to various uses
Structure Properties Uses
Diamond - Very hard - In tools for drilling
- Sparkles when cut and cutting
- For making jewelry
Graphite - Soft and slippery - Used as a lubricant
- Soft and black - For making pencils
- Conducts electricity - For making
electrodes
Silicon (IV) Oxide - Hard and can - For making sand
scratch things papers
- Hard and - For making glass
transparent and lenses
 - Has a high melting - Used in bricks for
point lining furnaces
All giant structures:
- Have high melting and boiling points
- Are very hard
- Are insoluble in water

Metallic bonds
Terms:
Metallic bonding: bonding between metal atoms caused by strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between positively charged metal ions and a sea of
delocalised (free) electrons.

How are the bonds formed?

Each atom gives up valence electrons to form positive ions. There are free
electrons moving between the spaces and positive metal ions are attracted to
the sea of delocalised electrons, which hold the atoms together.

*A metal is a lattice of positive metal ions in a sea of delocalised electrons.

*Metallic bonding refers to the interaction between the delocalised electrons
and the metal nuclei.
*The physical properties of metals are the result of the delocalisation of the
electrons involved in metallic bonding.
Structure and properties of metallic bonds
Metals share characteristic physical properties, which can be explained through
this model of metallic bonding. See summary below:
❖ high melting points
A lot of energy is needed to overcome the strong metallic bonds and thus
separate the atoms.
❖ good electrical conductivity
The delocalised electrons are highly mobile, and therefore can move
through the metal structure and carry charges in response to an applied
voltage.
❖ good thermal conductivity
The delocalised electrons and the closely packed ions enable efficient
transfer of heat energy.
❖ malleability and ductility
The delocalised electrons move non-directionally, and in a random
manner through the metallic lattice. So the metallic bond is kept intact
while the shape changes due to applied pressure.
❖ shininess and lustre
The delocalised electrons in the metallic crystal structure can reflect light.