UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 431 – Theory of Elasticity I

Lecture Notes on the

Principle of Virtual Work
for 2021/2022 Session
(Part I)

Lecturer:
Howard O. NJOKU PhD

January 28, 2023

Contents
1 The Principle of Virtual Work 2
1.1 Application of the principle of virtual work to pin-jointed frames . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Statically determinate pin-jointed frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 The unit-load method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.3 Temperature effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

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1 The Principle of Virtual Work
To completely analyze mechanical structures, including trusses, frames and beams, the
forces in the members of the structures have to be first determined by applying appropri-
ate conditions of equilibrium. Next, the stresses in the members are obtained by dividing
the forces by the member cross-sectional areas. Strains in the members are then obtained
from the stress-strain relationships of the member materials, and the elongations of the
members are obtained from the strains. The displacements of various points in the struc-
ture are then finally determined. The principle of virtual work, and the robust unit-load
method which is derived from it, greatly simplifies this detailed undertaking. In later ses-
sions of this course, the strain energy and complementary energy concepts will be shown
to also yield very useful methods in this regard.

Statement of the Principle of Virtual Work

The principle of virtual work may be stated in its basic form thus: A particle under the
action of a system of forces is in static equilibrium if, when it is given any small virtual
displacement, the net work done by the forces is zero.

Figure 1: A particle under the action of three coplanar forces.

The virtual displacement is imaginary and of arbitrary magnitude and direction, and
is distinct from actual displacements caused by real loads acting on the particle. This
displacement however has to be small enough to ensure that the lines of action of the
forces acting on the particle continue to act parallel to their original lines of action.
Consider a particle under the action of three forces, F1 , F2 and F3 (Fig. 1). The particle

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is given a virtual displacement, and the displacements of the particle in the directions of
forces F1 , F2 and F3 are δ1 , δ2 and δ3 , respectively. These displacements are known as
corresponding displacements. If this system is in static equilibrium then according to the
virtual work principle
F 1 δ1 + F 2 δ2 + F 3 δ3 = 0 (1)

The work done by each force has been obtained as the product of the force and its
corresponding virtual displacement. This work is known as the virtual work. If any of the
loads were a couple, then the virtual work would be the product of the moment of the
couple and its corresponding virtual angle of rotation.
Suppose the resultant force on the particle of Fig. 1 is R. If the virtual displacement
given to the particle in the direction of R is ∆, by the principle of virtual work,

R∆ = 0 (2)

i.e., the net work is equal to zero. Since ∆ is non-zero, R must be zero. We have thus
shown by the principle of virtual work that the resultant of a system of forces in statical
equilibrium is zero.
We proceed to derive special forms of this statement for pin-jointed frames and beams.

1.1 Application of the principle of virtual work to pin-jointed

frames
1.1.1 Statically determinate pin-jointed frames

Consider the plane pin-jointed frame of Fig. 2, which is acted upon by external loads W1
and W2 . In the absence of gross distortions of the frame, the axial forces in the members
are found by considering static equilibrium at each joint. The tensile forces in members
AB, BC, CD, and BD are denoted P1 , P2 , P3 and P4 , respectively.
Consider further, the forces acting at joint C (Fig. 3). These forces P2 , P3 and W1
form an equilibrium system. If the joint is given a virtual displacement from C to C ′ as
shown, the corresponding displacement of W1 is δ1 , while the corresponding displacements
of P2 and P3 are ∆2C and ∆3C , respectively. By the principle of virtual work,

W1 δ1 − P2 ∆2C − P3 ∆3C = 0 (3)

The negative virtual work terms are because the forces P2 and P3 and their corresponding
displacements have opposite directions. Re-arranging,

W1 δ1 = P2 ∆2C + P3 ∆3C (4)

If virtual displacements are also given to all other joints of the frame, similar equations

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 Figure 2: A loaded plane pin-jointed frame.

Figure 3: Forces on joint C of the pin-jointed frame in Fig. 2.

will be obtained for them as follows: For joint B,

W2 δ2 = P1 ∆1B + P2 ∆2B + P4 ∆4B (5)

For joint A,
RA δA = P1 ∆1A (6)

And for joint D,

RD δD = P3 ∆3D + P4 ∆4D (7)

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 Summing equations (4)–(7), we obtain

W1 δ1 + W2 δ2 + RA δA + RD δD = P1 (∆1A + ∆1B ) + P2 (∆2B + ∆2C )

(8)
+P3 (∆3C + ∆3D ) + P4 (∆4B + ∆4D )

The LHS of equation 8 represents the total virtual work done by external forces (in-
cluding reactions at the supports A and B) due to virtual displacements of the joints,
while the RHS represents the work done by internal forces.

Figure 4: Extension of member BC of the pin-jointed frame in Fig. 2.

The sum of the corresponding displacements associated with the internal force in each
member may be recognized to be equal to the extension of the member. For example,
as shown in Fig. 4, ∆2B + ∆2C is equal to the extension of member BC e2 due force P2 .
Equation 8 may thus be written as
X X
Wδ = Pe (9)
j m

where the LHS summation is over all joints (j) in the frame whereas the RHS summation
is over all members (m) of the frame.
A more general statement of the principle of virtual work may now be stated as follows:
A deformable structure under the action of a system of loads is in static equilibrium if
when it is given any small virtual deformation, the virtual work done by the external loads
is equal to the virtual work done by the internal forces (or stress resultants.)
The principle of virtual work in this form can be used to find displacements at any
point in a structure. Note that no restrictions on material linearity or non-linearity,
elasticity or inelasticity have been imposed. However, the virtual displacements must be
compatible with the structure’s supports and maintain the structure’s continuity. The
displacements must also be sufficiently small to preserve the structure’s geometry and
allow calculations to be based on its original configuration.

Example 1
The pin-jointed frame of Fig. 5 is acted upon by a load W at joint C. All members of the
frame have the same cross-sectional area, A and are made of the same material having

5
Young’s modulus E. Calculate the vertical displacement of joint C, if all the members
remain linearly elastic.

Figure 5: Example 1.

Solution:
The desired displacement can be found using Eqn. (9)
X X
Wδ = Pe (9)
j m

Let the vertical displacement of joint C be δV C . Then, since the load W on joint C is the
only external load on the frame, the LHS of Eqn. (9) is
X
W δ = W δV C
j

As the members remain elastic and the resultant forces acting on them is constant, their
extensions e are obtained with the expression

Pl
e= (10)
EA
X
where P is the resultant (internal) force in a member. It is convenient to compute Pe
m
using a table.
The members are identified in the first column. Their lengths are determined and listed
in the second column. Using the laws of static equilibrium, the internal resultant forces
in the members are calculated and are shown in the third column. Since the members
are linearly elastic, Eqn. (10) is used to obtain their extensions, and these are shown in

6
 Table 1: Solution table for Example 1

Member Length (l) Forces (P ) Extension (e) P ×e

2W L 4W 2 L
AB L 2W
EA EA
WL W 2L
BC L W
EA EA
−W L W 2L
DE L -W
EA √EA
√ √ −2W L 2 2W L
BD 2L − 2W
EA EA
WL W 2L
BE L W
EA √EA
√ √ −2W L 2 2W 2 L
CE 2L − 2W
EA EA
√
X (7 + 4 2)W 2 L
Pe =
m
EA

the fourth column. The products of the forces (P ) and extensions (e), given in columns
X
3 and 4 respectively, are obtained and listed in the fifth column, and their sum, P e,
m
determined.
Substituting into the virtual work expression (Eq. (9)),
√
(7 + 4 2)W 2 L
W δV C =
EA
√
(7 + 4 2)W L
⇒ δV C =
EA

1.1.2 The unit-load method

In typical situations, the desired displacements will usually not be co-located with (or
corresponding to) the external loads. The unit-load method is a powerful application
of the principle of virtual work which enables us to handle such cases with ease. The
procedure of the unit-load method is as follows:

Step I: Compute P (the resultant internal forces in the members of the structure) caused
by the real loads acting on the structure.

Step II: Determine e, the extensions in the members of the structure caused by the
forces P . (Use Eqn. (10) for linearly elastic members).

Step III: Impose a fictitious load of unit value (i.e., W = 1) on the structure, at the
location whose displacement is required and in the direction of the required displace-
ment. This unit load acting on the structure, co-located with the desired displace-

7
 ment and in the direction of the desired displacement is known as a corresponding
load.

Step IV: Compute the resultant forces, Pu , due to the unit load that was imposed in
Step III.

Step V: Impose the displacements/extensions e obtained in Step II as virtual displace-

ments on the equilibrium system of forces, Pu , obtained in Step IV to obtain the
virtual work done on the members of the structure.
If the desired displacement is δ, then the expression of the principle of virtual work on
the basis of the unit load method is
X
1×δ = Pu e (11)
m

The work done due to the unit load appears alone on the LHS of Eqn. (11) since the unit
load does the only external work on the system.

Example 2
For the pin-jointed frame of Example 1 (Fig. 5), find the vertical displacement of joint B
due to the load W at joint C.
Solution:
Let the desired displacement be denoted δV B . Steps I and II of the unit load method,
i.e., determination of internal resultant forces and extensions in the members, have been
done in Example 1. For Step III, a vertical unit load is imposed on joint B as shown in
Fig. 6. The resultant forces, Pu , due to this unit load are computed and listed in the fifth
column of Table 2. Then the products Pu e are listed in the last column of Table 2, and
X
their sum, Pu e, obtained.
e X
Substituting for Pu e in Eqn. (11), the desired vertical displacement of joint B is
e
obtained as √
(2 + 2 2)W L
δV B = (12)
EA

Example 3
The frame shown in Fig. 7 is hinged at C and supported on a roller at D. The members
of the frame are made of a non-linear material whose extension e under a tensile force P
is given by
e = aP − bP 2 (Ex 3)

where a and b are constants. Calculate the horizontal displacement of joint B when joint
A is subjected to a vertical load 2W and a horizontal load W as shown.

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 Figure 6: Example 2.

Table 2: Solution table for Example 2

Member Length (l) Forces (P ) Extension (e) Pu Pu × e

2W L 2W L
AB L 2W 1
EA EA
WL
BC L W 0 0
EA
−W L
DE L -W 0 0
EA √
√ √ −2W L √ 2 2W 2 L
BD 2L − 2W − 2
EA EA
WL
BE L W 0 0
EA
√ √ −2W L
CE 2L − 2W 0 0
EA √
X (2 + 2 2)W L
Pu e =
m
EA

Solution:
The force resultants, P , in the members due to the original loading are determined by
applying the laws of static equilibrium and these are shown in the 3rd column of Table 3.
The resulting extensions, e, in the members are shown in the 4th column of Table 3.
A horizontal unit load is imposed on B and based on the laws of static equilibrium,
the force resultants in the members, Pu , due this unit load are determined and are listed
in column 5 of Table 3. The products of Pu and e are listed in the last column of the
X
table, and their sum, Pu e, obtained. If the desired displacement is denoted δHB , then
e

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 Figure 7: Example 3.

Table 3: Solution table for Example 2

Member Length (l) Forces (P ) Extension (e) Pu Pu × e

AB L W aW − bW 2 0 0
CD L 0 0 0 0
AC L −2W a(−2W ) − b(−2W )2 0 0
2
BD √L √W √ aW − bW √ -1
√ −aW + √bW 2
BC 2L − 2W a(− 2W ) − b(− 2W )2 X 2 −2aW − 2 2bW 2
√
Pu e = −3aW + (1 − 2 2)bW 2
m

from Eq. (11),

√
δHB = −3aW + (1 − 2 2)bW 2
h √ i
= − 3aW + (2 2 − 1)bW 2

Both terms in brackets on the RHS are positive, hence the entire RHS is negative. Showing
that the actual displacement is in the direction opposite to that assumed for the applied
unit load. This example illustrates the application of the virtual work principle to a
structure whose members are made of a non-linear material.

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 Figure 8: Imposition of unit load on joint B. (Example 3)

Example 4
The plane frame shown in Fig. 9 bears a load W at joint D. The area of members AE,
BE, and BD is A1 , while that of members AB, BC, CD and DE is A2 . Find the vertical
displacement of joint B due to the load W at joint C. If W = 50kN, L = 1m, A1 =
5000mm2 , A2 = 1000mm2 and E = 200GPa, what is the value of δvB .

Figure 9: Example 4.

Solution:
The lengths, l of the members are given in column 2 of Table 5. The areas, A of the
members are listed in column 3. The forces, P in the members, found using the equations
of statics, are listed in column 4. Using the expression e = P l/AE, the extension, e of
each member is found and listed in column 5.
A sketch of the frame showing a vertical unit load imposed on joint B is shown in
Fig. 10. The forces in the members, Pu due to the unit load are obtained with the

11
 Table 4: Solution table for Example 4
Member Length, Area, Force, Extension, Unit load Pu × e
l A P e = P L/AE force, Pu
AB L A2 W W L/A2 E 1 W L/A2 E
BC L
√ A2 0 0 0 0
CD 2L A2 0 0 0 0
DE L
√ A2 0√ 0 0√ 0√
BE 2L A1 - 2W −2W L/A1 E − 2 2 2W L/A1 E
BD L A1 W W L/A1 E 0 0

equations of statics and are listed in column 6. The virtual work of Pu in the directions
of extensions e (Pu × e) are listed in column 7.

Figure 10: Imposition of unit load on joint B. (Example 4)

By the unit load method statement of the virtual work principle,

X
δvB = Pu e
√
W L 2 2W L
δvB = +
A2 E A1 E
√ !
W L 2 2W L 1
δvB = +
E A1 A2

Substituting the values of W , L, A1 , A2 and E,

√ !
50 × 103 × 1 2 2W L 1
δvB = +
200 × 109 500 × 10−6 1000 × 10−6

δvB = 0.0003914212m ≡ 0.391mm

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1.1.3 Temperature effects

If displacements in the members of a structure are caused by changes in temperature ∆θ

in the structure, then the extensions of the structure’s members would be obtained using
the appropriate thermal expansivity relation, viz.,

ethermal = α ∆θ L (13)

where ethermal is the thermally induced extension, α is the coefficient of linear thermal
expansion, while L is the original length of the structural member.

Example 5
If the frame of Example 3 is unloaded but subjected to a temperature rise of ∆θ, and if
the coefficient of linear expansion of members AB, BD, CD and AC is α1 , and that of
member CB is α2 , determine the horizontal displacement of B.
Solution:
The solution is presented in Table 5. The lengths and thermal expansion coefficients of
the members are listed in columns 2 and 3, respectively. The thermal extensions obtained
with Eqn. (13) are listed in column 4. The unit load is imposed as in Example 3, leading
to the same resultant forces in the members, which are listed in column 5. The products
X
of Pu and e are shown in column 6, and their sum, Pu e, determined.
m

Table 5: Solution table for Example 4

Member Length (l) Coefficient Extension (e) Pu Pu × e

of thermal
expansion (α)
AB L α1 α1 ∆θ L 0 0
CD L α1 α1 ∆θ L 0 0
AC L α1 α1 ∆θ L 0 0
BD √L α1 √α1 ∆θ L -1
√ −α1 ∆θ L
BC 2L α2 2α2 ∆θ L X 2 2α2 ∆θ L
Pu e = (2α2 − α1 )∆θ L
m

Using Eqn. (11), the desired displacement, δHB , is then

δHB = (2α2 − α1 )∆θ L

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Sample Problem I
The area of members AE, BE and BD is A1 . The area of members AB, BC, CD and
DE is A2 . All members have the same Young’s modulus E.

1. Determine the vertical displacement of B, δV B , in terms of W , E, A1 , A2 and L.

2. If W = 50 kN, L = 1 m, A1 = 500 mm2 , A2 = 1000 mm2 and E = 200GPa, what

is the numerical value of δV B ?

Figure 11: Sample Problem I

Sample Problem II
The four outside bars (AB, BC, CD and DA) of the square truss shown in the figure have
their temperatures lowered by an amount ∆T . What is the change in distance between
joints B and D?

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Figure 12: Sample Problem II

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