SSP 22

PHILIPPINE
INDIGENOUS
COMMUNITIES

2023
College of Social Sciences
Tecah C. Sagandoy
MODULE 2. Identities and Homes of Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines
Unit 3. Indigenous Peoples of the Philippines
Lesson 2.1. Who and where are the Indigenous Peoples of the Philippines?
Lesson outcomes:
1. Identify the Philippine indigenous peoples and their locations
2. Describe selected Philippine indigenous peoples, their ways of life, and socio-
economic conditions

Lesson Overview: In this lesson, you will identify the Philippine indigenous peoples, locate their
territories and homes, and describe their culture and socio-economic conditions.
READ TO LEARN
Below is a lengthy excerpt from Hanaro Hirai’s (2015)“Indigenous Communities in the
Philippines: A Situation Analysis.” [In-text citations were omitted for readability purposes]
________________________________________________________________________________
“The Philippines is a culturally diverse country with an estimated 17 million Indigenous
Peoples (IPs) belonging to 110 ethno-linguistic groups in 2010. They are mainly concentrated in
Luzon (33%), especially in the Cordillera Administrative Region; and Mindanao (61%) with some
groups in the Visayas area.
“IP settlements are remote without access to basic services leading to high incidence of
morbidity, mortality and malnutrition. There are one hundred ten (110) major indigenous groups in
the country. Most of them practice traditional swidden agriculture in upland areas. However, these
traditional cultivation activities and fallow areas have been degraded and are further threatened by
the influx of migrant non-IP farmers who have introduced unsustainable lowland-commercial
farming practices. Furthermore, most indigenous cultural communities do not have legal rights over
their lands, limiting their conduct of livelihood activities and denied access to other natural resources
in their communities.

“The Indigenous groups in the northern mountains of Luzon (Cordillera) are collectively known
as Igorot while the groups on the southern island of Mindanao are collectively called Lumad.
There are smaller groups collectively known as Mangyan in the island of Mindoro as well as
smaller, scattered groups in the Visayas islands and Luzon, including several groups of hunter-
gatherers in transition. Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines have retained much of their
traditional, pre-colonial culture, social institutions and livelihood practices. They generally live
in geographically isolated areas with a lack of access to basic social services and few
opportunities for mainstream economic activities, education or political participation. In
contrast, commercially valuable natural resources such as minerals, forests and rivers can be
found primarily in their areas, making them continuously vulnerable to development aggression
and land grabbing.” (IWGIA, 2022)
 “Indigenous Peoples/Indigenous Cultural Communities (IPs/ICCs) are comprised by
ethnolinguistic groups in the country. They are located in seven (7) ethnographic areas as follows:
1) Cordillera Administrative Region and Region I; 2) Region II; 3) Region III and the rest of Luzon;
4) Island Groups and the rest of Visayas; 5) Northern and Western Mindanao; 6) Central Mindanao;
and, 7) Southern and Eastern Mindanao.
“The total population may not have been reported comprehensively. Different reports indicate
different numbers of IPs. Neither the National Statistics Office nor LGUs have updated their data on
the IP populations. Many of the surveys at most provide rough estimates. Furthermore, IP groups
are often referred by various names. Historical accounts and anthropological studies differ in
classifying the indigenous cultural communities. They do not always accord on the nature and
variations in language, social organizations and economic practices in what constitutes an
indigenous cultural community.

“THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN LUZON.

“Mountain Province. The five major [ethnic groups] are Applai, Balangao, Baliwon, Kankana-
ey, and Bontok. Majority are Kankanaeys followed by Bontoks and Applai.
“Barangay Caneo is one of the 16 barangays of Bontoc located in the eastern part of the
municipality. It has a land area of approximately 2,491 hectares consisting of forest cover estimated
as 1,290 hectares, grasslands at 562.5 hectares, pastureland of about 400 hectares, and the agricultural
area covering 203.50 hectares, divided into rice and non-rice lands. The barangay has steep to sloping
terrains. The residential area is situated along the sloping terrain. The barangay is located 900 meters
above sea level with the residences situated at the lower elevation bounded by steep mountains.
Majority of Bontok households in the community are engaged in rice farming. The farm is located
in an ancestral domain. However, the land title has not been officially granted to the Bontoks through
Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT). Nonetheless, some villagers consider that they own
the land they are tilling. The Social Census Map of the PRA showed that 10 percent of Bontok families
feel that they own the land because they inherited the land from their ancestors. However, most of
the villagers did not inherit the land, so they think they do not own any. They work on the lands
owned by the others.
“[Ways of life in Caneo]. In the Bontok community, traditional customs and beliefs remain. The
villagers hold ritual prayers for successful activities. They butcher a couple of chickens and dogs.
They slaughter the chickens in the pinikpikan way by repeatedly beating their bodies, especially
thigh, necks and heads with rounded wooden sticks.
“Farming for rice consumption is practiced. [Other than farming], there are two activities
considered as sources of income in the community. One is paid labor in construction and carpentry
works. The other is weaving by the women.
“Laborers are involved in canal construction, stone walling for boundary and property
demarcation, cleaning foot trails, planting trees to prevent erosion, cleaning roads and carpentry.
Some even go as far as Baguio to work. Construction work is not regularly available. Almost all
women engage in weaving. They produce beautiful colorful garments. This skill has been handed
down from one generation to another.
 “Problems & Concerns of Caneo: The biggest problem in rice farming is the low level of
production. Insufficient rice production leads to their purchase of rice from the nearby town. The
factors accounting for this problem are: lack of irrigation system, reduction of water sources due to
deforestation, damage by pests especially rats on the harvested rice, unfavorable climate for multiple
harvests, and reduction of land size that a family inherits after continuous redistribution over
generations aggravated by population growth in the community.
“The Bontoks emphasized that their land has not been utilized effectively because of the lack of
irrigation system. Pasturelands which cover the biggest portion of the land area are not utilized
productively. Water scarcity discourages them to improve rice fields.
“The difficulty in access to the community results in food shortage. A barangay access road,
estimated to be 4.5 kilometers from the national road at Sitio Saddle of Talubin, connects Caneo to
other barangays. Accessibility is difficult due to the rocky road and possible landslides. Accessibility
worsens during the rainy season because the roads are slippery and prone to erosion. Daily, there
are two service jeepneys to Bontoc in the morning and the same vehicles return to Caneo in the
afternoon. However, landslides inundate the road in the rainy season resulting in its closure.
“Access to medical services poses a big challenge. Medical missions are not regularly conducted
in the community. The Bontoks seek medical assistance from a hospital located about 14 kilometers
from the village. The transportation fare to and from the hospital is 50 pesos, which is a huge
financial burden. Some Bontoks gave up going to the hospital because they could not afford this
transportation fee. For emergency cases, they need to hire a jeep for 700 pesos. Due to severe poverty,
medical care is a big concern. Some Bontoks sell their inherited land to bear the cost of hospitalization
of family members.
“The leading illnesses among the Bontoks in the community are influenza and pneumonia. The
children are mostly affected by respiratory diseases, particularly influenza. The Bontoks in the
Caneo barely make ends meet. Thus, a family member getting ill implies a tremendous problem.
Those who have inherited lands would sell them for treatment although it does not necessarily lead
to cure, while those who do not have the means to earn for the medical expenses do not consult
health providers at all. Children are forced to stop schooling.
“The community has a low literacy rate with 60 percent of villagers having no formal education.
This implies that the younger generation has better access to education than the elders. However,
the Social Census Map showed a large number of out-of-school children and youth. Even though
there is a grade school in the community, majority of those 6-12 years were out-of-school.
Furthermore, most of those aged 13-18 years were not studying. Low level of income is the crucial
factor that limits access to basic education. A major reason for grade school children to drop-out is
their inability to purchase their school needs. Those who are in high school, had to stay in a boarding
house in the town proper since the school is located about four kilometers from the community. For
secondary school students, inability to pay the rent of the boarding house at the Bontok town proper
is the reason for dropping out.
“The Bontok women mentioned that there are no threats of armed conflicts in their community.
However, a Philippine National Police officer noted that the New People’s Army (NPA) has come
in contact with the Bontoks in the community. They invited the youth for discussion. The Bontoks
occasionally provide the NPA with food despite the fact that the community frequently experiences
food shortage. They seem to have a major influence on the Bontoks’ decision to turn down the
irrigation project offered by the government.

“Isabela. Isabela (Region II) had 1,489,645 population in 2010. IP groups in this province are
constituted by Bontok, Bago, Dumagat, Gaddang, Iballoi, Ifugao, Ibanag, Itawes, Ilongot/Bugkalot,
Kankanaey, Applai, Kalinga, Kalanguya, Agta, Bago, Gaddang, Kalinga, Kankana-ey, Ibanag,
Itawes, Itneg, Tinggian, Ybanag and Yogad.
“[Characteristics, ways of life, and socio-economic condition]. [In Dalig-Kalinga, Aurora in
Isabela, the Gaddang are typically involved in agriculture.] The main source of livelihood of the
community is tobacco and corn farming. They own the land which they inherited from their
ancestors. According to the NCIP of Isabela Province, the Gaddangs do not officially hold the land
title despite the fact that they dwell in their ancestral domain. The contradiction shows the complex
situation of land ownership among the IPs. However, they claim that they own the land despite
continuous threat of mortgage, foreclosure, and being taken from them.
“Differences are noted among the Gaddangs in terms of physical features, as well as economic,
social and educational status. Some have light skin while others have dark complexion. Some have
large farms and are wealthy enough to hire laborers for their farms while others have little or no
land. Some have water-sealed toilets while others have no toilet facilities at all. Some do not even
know their age or have not completed grade school while others accomplished tertiary level of
education. Women estimate their age based on historical events, such as changes of political regimes
and natural calamities. Some women graduated from high school and one even finished college.
Some are thin and have darker skins. Some did not register the birth of their children because it was
not their practice before. Regarding marriage, most are arranged and parental selected union is
acceptable, [but the] tradition is changing.
“The average size of the farm of a Gaddang household is less than half a hectare. Many of the
farmers make ends meet from the income derived from farming. The lending and borrowing
mechanism which they engage in pushed farmers into debts. They borrow capital to purchase
agricultural inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides from lenders who buy their products. These
lenders dictate the price and monopolize the market. They dictate not only the retail prices of the
products, but also the interest rate for their loan. The capitalists of the corn farmers normally demand
30 percent interest within a four-month period. For tobacco, a monopolistic enterprise demands 15
percent interest in six months.
“A large part of the income derived from their products is spent to pay debts and the
accumulated interests. Their lands are mortgaged. Hence, when the debts reach a point where the
farmers could not pay back, their lands are forfeited. As a consequence, the Gaddang farmers think
of working abroad as an option to solve the debt problem and alleviate poverty. Many of the
Gaddang families have a family member who is working or have worked abroad. In many cases,
women serve as housemaids.
“Access to health care services is rather difficult. A midwife visits their community once a
month and gives immunization. Medical missions are conducted once a year. A Barangay Health
Center, which has only one midwife without medicines, is located two kilometers away from the
community. Nearly half of the women do not register their births. The Gaddang women are
normally assisted by a traditional midwife, called hilot when they deliver at home. Breastfeeding is
commonly practiced, but some feed their babies with powdered milk.
“Many Gaddangs have relatively higher education. Majority of children are studying. There are
likewise many out-of-school children and youth. Children dropped out due to lack of funds for their
school needs. Aside from expenses for their children’s school supplies, there are other costs, such as
materials for educational notices and the Parents-Teachers-Association’s membership fee, which the
school periodically requires.

“THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN THE VISAYAS.

“Antique. In 2010, the total population was 546, 000 of whom 3,030 were indigenous peoples
(5.5%). They constitute the Ati, Cuyunen and Bukidnon groups. Their main sources of livelihood are
laundering, farm labor, handicraft, fishing and hunting.
“[Situation, Problems, and Concerns]. Food shortage with concomitant hunger is alarming in
the Ati community. Majority of them eat twice a day and some once a day. They are thin and frail-
looking. The adults combine breakfast and lunch in one meal. The schoolchildren skip breakfast.
Inability to procure school needs is a major reason why Ati children stop going to school.
Sometimes they have to be absent from school to help their parents. A 12-year-old Grade V student
occasionally helps her mother do laundry, which results in her being absent from school. Every day
is a struggle for the Ati to obtain food. Hunger and shortage of food supply are the most serious
problems needing immediate attention. The fact that the Atis do not plant root crops worsens the
situation. The place where they live is located in a coastal area. The soil is unfit for planting. Root
crops serve as their food in emergency. However, since the Atis are not able to plant these, they rely
on their low income to purchase food. A day care center and elementary schools are located in their
vicinity. Nonetheless, most of school age children do not attend these.
“The Atis are situated along a coastal area of Sitio Igcaputol. They do not own the lands where
they are situated. They have been transferring several times although they do not want to relocate.
Their semi-nomadic lifestyle is due to lack of land ownership, the economic difficulties, and natural
calamities. They also have been moving from one place to another due to natural calamities,
particularly landslide and flood.
“Violence against women related to alcoholism among men is a serious issue. The community
is located in the lowland where liquor shops are accessible and men spend money on liquor. Most
of the women have been regularly abused or beaten by intoxicated husbands. [One woman, for
example] still has a deep scar on her nose. She showed her arm and waist where different deep scars
are left. Another woman reports that her husband punched her on the eye when he was drunk. Most
of the women married at a young age. The children witnessed how their fathers abused their
mothers.
“Farm labor is the primary source of livelihood for the Atis. Other sources are from laundry and
nipa craft. Occasionally, they are livestock breeders, housemaids and hunters. However, these do
not provide them with sufficient income. Also, none of these activities is a stable income source. The
average daily salary of a farm laborer is Php 100. Farm work is done seven days a week in the rainy
season, but only four days a week during the dry season. To compensate for the loss of income, men
usually go fishing and raise livestock during dry season. In the dry season, they experience economic
hardship and hunger. Laundry service is a common economic activity among women. They do it in
Non-IPs’ private houses. They are usually paid Php 100; if the employers are kind, they are given
Php 150. Work is usually available once a week. For nipa craft making, they earn an average of Php
300 per month. Hunting is a favorite economic activity. Husbands and wives go to the mountain
together. They would know when to hunt particularly during full moon.
“Birth registration and immunization seem to be better in the community. Most women
registered their births. NCIP and the local civil registry office encouraged them to do so. The only
reason why some failed is the inability to shoulder the cost of late registration. Majority of the
women completed the immunization program of their children. The barangay midwife effectively
conducts information dissemination and immunization campaign. [However], Ati children suffer
from severe malnutrition due to food shortage. It is likely that infant and childhood deaths are
considerably high in the Ati community. Absence of prenatal care is a major reason.
“High rate of dropping out from school due to hunger is a major hindrance. Bullying is another
problem. The Ati children and youth suffer from discrimination and bullying in school. It is one of
the causes of dropping out of school.

“Guimaras. The Atis of Guimaras constitute 3.8 percent of the total provincial population. They
are involved in handicraft making, hunting, gathering and paid labor. The Atis [of Guimaras] are
likely emigrants from Antique who intended to seek jobs in Haciendas in Negros, but were
restrained in Guimaras Province and eventually settled there. Their greatgrandparents moved to
Guimaras in the mid-40s. Presently they are settled in their respective areas. However, securing land
tenure is a major problem in these settlements. They live in private lands. Presently, there is no
definite ancestral domain in the province. In Sitio Kati-kati, they are still processing several
documents required in procuring land titles to lay claim on their lands.
“[Situation, Problems, and Concerns]. Traditional healing is widely practiced in the province
and herbs are essential in treatment. There are plenty of herbal plants in the mountainside and the
hills. Many herbal medicines are sold in Iloilo City, which takes only fifteen minutes to reach by
pump boat from the port of Guimaras islands. A busy street in the center of Iloilo city, called Iznart
Street, is known for stalls where merchants offer various herbal medicines. The Atis are major
vendors of these herbal medicines on the street. An old Ati tribal healer said that the skill of healing
has been handed down by the older generation. However, the younger Atis are no longer interested
in traditional healing and acquisition of indigenous knowledge.
“In fact, the government and private sectors have been interacting with the Atis and assisting
the community through health seminars, livelihood projects, relief operations, educational
assistance and vocational training among others. The Ati women seemed to have been used to
interacting with outsiders. They are talkative and lively, and looked comfortable in expressing
themselves. The interventions so far are generally appreciated.
“They have different livelihood sources. More than half of the households derive their income
from more than four different economic activities: gathering herbal plants and medicines, making
and selling handicraft; hunting and planting and gathering root crops. Other activities include
gathering shells; construction works and carpentry; gathering and selling scraps; and carving wood
handicrafts. Despite numerous sources of livelihood, income from these sources is not enough. The
LGUs and the NCIP have been implementing several livelihood programs and projects, including
capital assistance for indigenous handicraft-making and mat-weaving. Despite these, poverty
incidence remains high in the community. The average income per household is 500 to 800 pesos per
week, which is approximately 23 percent to 37 percent of the average income of a household in
Western Visayas.
“A day care center, a grade school and a secondary school are accessible to the community.
Most Atis are not studying due to poverty and poor nutrition. Children stop going to school to help
their families earn a living. With low education, limited livelihood opportunities are available to
them. Children stop attending school either temporarily or permanently due to financial constraints,
eventually becoming construction workers or housemaids. With little education, lack of land
security, and limited livelihood opportunities, their options for survival are limited.

“Northern Samar. The number of IPs in Northern Samar is undetermined. They consist of the
Mamanwa, Abaknon and Manobo.
“[Characteristics, lifeways, and Concerns of Mamanwa in Barangay San Isidro, Las Navaz]. A
remarkable characteristic of the Mamanwas is suspicion of outsiders. They barely smile or laugh,
and select words carefully when they respond. The men lower their voices and whisper to each
other. The youth behave defensively. They are reluctant to talk about themselves and when they
speak, the words are cautiously chosen. They seldom smile. It is reasonable to have such defensive
attitude towards outsiders, due to the fact that they have never received any basic services, have
been continuously discriminated by lowlanders, and left behind.
“They are a Negrito subgroup believed to originate from Surigao and Agusan. They left
Mindanao due to socio-economic difficulties and migrated to Samar and Leyte in search for better
livelihood. Life in Samar is not easy either and they wish to seek assistance for their livelihood.
Although the community does not have any security concerns, one cannot entirely discount the
possibility that they have been affected by and/or are involved in armed conflicts. They are likely
to be vulnerable to influences of rebels especially since the government pays no attention to them
and they are left behind. There was an alleged military operation and insurgency in the area. The
military suspected that IPs have been connecting with and/or supporting the NPAs. The military
forcefully limited the amount of rice that they could purchase from the town because the military
suspected that they would supply the rice to the NPA. Insurgency and armed conflicts negatively
affect their livelihood.
“Their primary source of living is rattan-gathering. Other sources of revenue are gathering wild
abaca, basket and mat-making. They sell their rattan for Php 30 per 100 pieces to buyers in Barangay
Las Navas. On the average, a Mamanwa family collects 400-800 pieces weekly. The estimated
average income per household is Php 120-240 per week. The amount of rattan being gathered largely
depends on the season. During the rainy season, heavy rains prevent them from collecting rattan.
Hence, their income decreases considerably. Most of the income is spent for rice. They go down to
the barangay weekly to sell the rattans and purchase rice. The market is located about seven
kilometers from the community, and they hike for about two hours. Producing rice is the primal
concern of the Mamanwa. As substitute for rice, root crops are usually planted for self-consumption.
Yet, they only eat twice a day. Their income is devoted only to food. Education, health and other
basic needs are not met.
“There is no health service in the community, nor has a single medical mission visited them.
The Mamanwa women are not aware of iodized salt. Some have not registered their children because
of the location of the registration center and their inability to bear the cost of the registration.
Although they are aware of the immunization, none of the Mamanwa women had their children
vaccinated. They need to live in the Barangay proper to have better access to basic services, especially
health services and education.
“There is no health service in the community, nor has a single medical mission visited them.
The Mamanwa women are not aware of iodized salt. Some have not registered their children because
of the location of the registration center and their inability to bear the cost of the registration.
Although they are aware of the immunization, none of the Mamanwa women had their children
vaccinated. They need to live in the Barangay proper to have better access to basic services, especially
health services and education.

“THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE IN MINDANAO

“Zamboanga del Sur. In the province, four ethnic groups are identified. Sama (Badjao),
Subanen, Kalibugan and Sama (Samal).
“The Subanen, their lifeways, and condition in Barangay Lacarayan, Tigbao. The Subanens
dwell in a mountainous ancestral domain with vast areas of rice fields. Majority work as tenant
farmers on fields owned by non-IPs because the agriculturally developed and irrigated areas have
already been titled to non-IPs before the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act law took effect.
“Many of the Subanen in the community manage to eat three meals a day and send their
children to at least an elementary school. However, poverty incidence in the community is still high.
The children need basic provisions such as school bags and sandals.
“They sell their agricultural products at a market located about two kilometers from the
community. The road to the market is rough and rocky. Majority of the Subanen hike for two hours
to reach the market, otherwise they use horses.
“The areas where the irrigation system is established and where the soil is fertile have been
titled to non-IPs prior to the implementation of the IPRA law. As a result, despite the fact that they
dwell in their ancestral land, and are surrounded by vast areas of rice fields, majority are tenant
farmers to the non-IPs. Under the agreement made with the land owners, the Subanen pay about
2,000 pesos annually and give one-eighth of their harvest or income to the landowners. The average
gross income estimated by the Subanen women is Php 7,000 every four months from rice production
and Php 6,000 per harvest from the other crops, of which the total income reaches approximately
one third of the average household income of the region. They noted, however, that the gross income
would be lower after the deduction of the cost of agricultural inputs and tenant fees.
“Barangay medical missions visit the community monthly. All children have been immunized
by the medical missions. Three fourths have been fully immunized. Majority of the Subanen women
give birth at home with the assistance of traditional midwives, called hilot. A hilot cuts the umbilical
cord through a bamboo stick. They go to hospitals for emergencies. A woman said she was taken to
the hospital when she experienced difficulties in delivery. Going to the hospital, however, is the last
resort, not only for economic reasons but the hospital’s distance.
“Most of the Subanens manage to have three meals a day. Their children who attend school
bring packed lunches. The meal consists of rice and vegetables. Fish is consumed once a week.
“A bleak situation in terms of educational achievement of the Barangay children exists. The
literacy rate of Barangay Tigbao is approximately 90 percent However, only half of the population
has attended at least an elementary school. Less than a fifth attended secondary schools and very
few enrolled in college and obtained a degree. Majority of the Subanen children have completed
grade school despite the fact that it takes them an hour to reach the nearest school. A rice distribution
project is conducted at school where a child who is in Grade II-VI is given a kilo weekly while a child
in Grade I is given one kilo daily. It is believed that the on-going rice distribution project has
influenced the high attendance of the grade school students. Nevertheless, the chance that a Subanen
child either enrolls late or repeats the grade level is high. Some students work as house help to
support their education. Furthermore, the incidence of being out-of-school is not to be discounted.
There is no discrimination or bullying at school as students are mostly Subanen.

“Bukidnon. Bukidnon is composed of six IP groups. They are mainly involved in farming, paid
labor, mat making, fishing, hunting, honey gathering and metal working.
“Sitio Kibuwa is located in an ancestral domain, and all residents are Bukidnons. Majority of
them engage in farming. The major crops are corn, camote (sweet potatoes), beans, tomatoes and
peppers. The low level of income is notable. They sell their products in a market weekly, but the
average household income from selling agricultural products, is merely 50 pesos per week. To obtain
additional income, many Bukidnons work as paid laborers in the farms owned by non-IPs or
transnational corporations, such as Del Monte, Inc. However, not only do they receive low wages;
they are also subjected to difficult working conditions.
“The work at these corporation farms does not provide a stable income since it is significantly
reduced after the harvest. Other livelihood activities are mat weaving, fishing, hunting, honey
gathering and metal working. However, these hardly increase their income. For instance, one
husband is a blacksmith and earns only about 2,000 pesos a year. Mats are sold for approximately
200 pesos and some villagers produce a couple of mats in a year while others weave more.
“Majority of the Bukidnons earn 1,000 pesos per month. In addition to their income, the need to
purchase rice regularly renders their economic situation difficult. After purchasing food, nothing
much is left to meet their other basic needs. However, they are eager to set aside as much money as
possible for their children’s education.
“Most of the women are assisted by traditional midwives, called hilot, when they give birth at
home. The average age at marriage is 17.6 years and the average number of children is seven to eight.
All of the women breastfed their babies for a year or two. After they finish they feed their babies
with grated rice with sugar, corn and mashed camote (sweet potato) three to five times a day. Most
register their births. Most of the children have been immunized by a medical mission that the
barangay conducts monthly.
 “They treat their illnesses with traditional herbal medicines, such as leaves of star apple,
avocado and or guyabano. However, they prefer Western drugs. They seldom go to the hospital
because of the distance and transportation cost.
“The highest educational level achieved by more than half of the households in the province is
elementary, while a fourth reached high school. There is a grade school in the community with three
teachers. A grade school teacher mentioned that the number of in-school children declines with
education progression. The biggest reason for this is the inability to afford school needs. Families
generally have very low income. Therefore, the parents cannot send their children to elementary
school continuously, even though it is physically accessible. Those who are in high school have to
stay in a boarding house in the town proper because one high school is located about 18.5 kilometers
from their community and another kilometers away. For these secondary school students, the
inability to pay the rent for a boarding house is one of the major reasons for dropping out of school.

“Saranggani. Saranggani Province has the following IP groups: B’laan, T’boli, Manobo and
Tagakaolo. They derive their income from farming.
“Polygyny is practiced by the T’boli community. Polygyny refers to the practice of a man having
more than one wife at the same time. It is the most common form of polygamy. The reasons vary
from wealth, social status, inability of the first wife to bear a child to the custom of levirate, i.e. the
obligation of the brother to marry the widow of his deceased sibling. Some husbands have two to
three wives. One became the second wife of a tribal healer in the village at the age of 15. Since she
did not produce a child, her husband married another woman. The other T’boli women are worried
that their husbands would also have another wife someday, and consequently their income and
wealth would be reduced. Lack of parental interest in education and early marriage deprived
women of an opportunity to get an education. They marry young.
“The T’boli community is located in an ancestral domain. Most of them are working in
smallscale banana plantation on their farms. They sell their produce in a market. However, the
harvest is not enough to support their families so they are working as paid laborers in nearby rice
farms owned by Non-IPs. Other economic activities include coconut planting and craft making such
as beads accessory making and basket making. The land used to be fertile; and produced abundant
banana and abaca in the 1970s. However, it became unproductive when an uncertain disease spread
and devastated their crops.
“The average daily income derived from farm labor work is Php 100. They generally work 3-4
days a week. Thus, their estimated weekly income is Php 300-400 each. Although majority of the
T’bolis primarily depend on the farm labor work for their income, the availability of work is neither
certain nor stable.
“The sources of family income are small scale banana and coconut production and tending a
sari-sari store. The average income derived from banana production is Php 200 a week. They earn
approximately Php 1,500 every four months from the coconut production. Some men have two more
wives. The farm is considered a mutual property of the three families of one husband, thus the
income is divided into three. To have additional income for the children, some women run sari-sari
stores from which they earn Php 40-100 a day.
 “The awareness of health issues among the T’boli women needs to be raised. Most women have
not registered the birth of their children nor have them immunized. Health service is provided by a
Barangay Health Worker in a health center located about one kilometer from their residence area.
Medical service is inaccessible. They primarily depend on herbal medicine.
“The T’boli children and youth in the community spend more than one year to complete a grade
level. The main reason for this is lack of financial support for school expenses and inability to bring
packed lunch to school. The children and youth are often disparaged by non-IP students at school.
Some are called ‘Tagabili (T’boli)’. Non-IP students called them ‘mga T’boli’.
“T’boli youth and children who are studying frequently work in farms for their school expenses.
One works every Saturday. Another works eight hours every Saturday and Sunday. Another girl
helps her mother in their sari-sari store after school. The children and youth help their parents in
various domestic works, including baby-sitting, fetching water, cooking, and washing. They seldom
have time to play and they even often feel tired. One girl is still enrolled in Grade III, said that she
has been suffering from constant headache, which affected her studies.”
[Access the full article at https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hanayo-
Hirai/publication/308742756_Indigenous_Communities_in_the_Philippines_A_Situation_Analysis/link
s/57edcbd708ae07d8d8f64d50/Indigenous-Communities-in-the-Philippines-A-Situation-Analysis.pdf]

Mamanwa in Samar [Web Master, 2016]

Bontoc boy [Jenks, 1905)

 Ethnographic Regions in the Philippines [Tebtebba Foundation, 2020]

GUIDE FOR UNDERSTANDING:

1. What is the basis of identifying the 110 groups of indigenous peoples in the Philippines?
2. In terms of location, where are most Philippine indigenous peoples found? What might
explain the Philippine indigenous peoples’ location or settlement?
3. What is the common problem of many Philippine indigenous peoples as regards the land
they occupy? What might explain this situation?
4. Compare and contrast the conditions/situations of the selected indigenous peoples
[Bontok, Gaddang, Ati, Mamanwa, Subanen, Bukidnon, and T’boli] in terms of: livelihood,
health and well-being, and education.
5. Identify other groups of indigenous peoples in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Briefly
describe their ways of life, current situation, problems and concerns.
NAME: ______________________________________ DATE: _____________
COURSE-YEAR-SECTION: ______________

Exercise 2.1. Philippine Indigenous Peoples: Identities, Language, and Traits

Read the given statements/descriptions and identify what is being referred to. Choose your
answers from the answer boxes and write your answer in the blanks provided before each
number. You need to refer to other sources. [Copy exactly how the options are written and
spelled, i.e., ALL CAPS]

IFUGAO IBALOI KANKANAEY BONTOC

KALINGA KALANGUYA KARAO TINGUIAN

______________________1. “Inmeyam? Entoy nadipdipusam? Nabayag ay sinsin-ed nika”

______________________2. “Awad tun dinukmaak, un kaay-ayamak, intarok ta ammak, sissiwit
un naatap”
______________________3. “Immaliyah hi bale yu, ta ibaga chi naminhod u”
______________________4. “Waray sahey marikit jen nak-inam-amta…nay-af-afil petteng to”
______________________5. “Nan layad nanlikhatan, tet-eway sik-a…nar-os cha am-in”

BAGOBO B’LAAN SUBANEN T’BOLI

TASADAY MANSAKA MAMANWA BANWAON

______________________6. “A person or people of the river”…Of the mountains and valleys of

Zamboanga
______________________7. “The first people to ascend mountains/upstream”…Of the valleys
of Davao
______________________8. Found mostly in South Cotabato; they are famous for their
tinalak—a tie-dyed woven abaca cloth
______________________9. “Opponent people” of Koronadal…Famous for their beads and
brass work
______________________10. Once reported as the “remnant of the stone age” and featured in
a National Geographic film
HANUNUO IRAYA BATANGAN KEN-UY
TAGBANUA BATAK CUYONIN BUHID

______________________11. They are famous for their nito-weaving (baskets and

handicrafts)….Of Mindoro Island
______________________12. Probably related with the Negritos…Found in Roxas and Puerto
Princesa City, Palawan
______________________13. “Mountain dwellers” of Mindoro, these are known for their pot
making skills
______________________14. Thought to be descendants of the Tabon Man…“Guardians of
Coron Island”
______________________15. Claimed as “genuine or true” Mangyan of Mindoro; uses Surat
Mangyan—a written script
 MARANAO KALIBUGAN IRANUN SAMAL
TAUSUG SANGIL YAKAN BADJAO

______________________16. Mainly settled in Basilan, are rice-producing farmers, and their

women are skilled weavers
______________________17. “Mixed breed” Subanens due to their intermarriage with the other
ethnic groups
______________________18. People of Jolo speaking island-coastal and island-interior dialects
______________________19. “Sea Gypsies” who are expert fishermen, sea divers, and
navigators
______________________20. “People of the lake” in Lanao; one of the largest Muslim ethno-
linguist groups

AGTA IBANAG ITAWIS IKALAHAN

GADDANG ILONGOT ISINAI IVATAN

______________________21. Related with the Kalanguya of the Cordillera; they are the “people
of the forest”
______________________22. “River people” of Cagayan Valley; maker of the kuribaw, tulali, and
kuritang musical instruments
______________________23. “Brown-colored people” of Nueva Viscaya who would greet
someone, “Manantaw ka?”
______________________24. Also known as Bugkalot and Ibilao; used to take or hunt heads of
persons during time of mourning
______________________25. “People across the river” in Cagayan Valley who would greet
someone, “Kunnasi ka?”