Machines LAB2 PDF

Laboratory Electrical Machines 1
EMA3LAB
Laboratory 2 Report
Transformers
Authors
Dascalu Cezar - S2110769026
Shreyash Vaghasiya - S2110769022
Course Supervisor
Dipl. Ing. Emmanuel Gehmayr
Report Submission Date

08.01.2023
EMA3LAB Transformers
Abstract
This lab report presents the results of experiments on transformers, including the
measurement of ohmic resistance, the short-circuit characteristics of a transformer, the no-
load characteristics of an iron core transformer, the determination of no-load losses, and the
identification of parameters under load conditions. The second exercise involved the study of
non-linear core inductance, and the third exercise focused on the coupling of inductance.
In the first exercise, the ohmic resistance of the transformer was measured using a
multimeter, and the short-circuit characteristics were studied by measuring the current and
voltage under short-circuit conditions. The no-load characteristics of the iron core
transformer were determined by measuring the no-load current and voltage, and the no-load
losses were calculated from these measurements. The transformer parameters were identified
under load conditions by measuring the current, voltage, and power at various load
resistances.
In the second exercise, the non-linear core inductance was studied by measuring the
current and power consumption in the circuit and plotting the non-linear inductance and
power factor as a function of current. The third exercise focused on the coupling of
inductance in a circuit with two inductors, and the effects of this coupling on the current and
voltage waveforms were observed.
Overall, these experiments provided a thorough understanding of transformer operation

and the effects of non-linear inductance and inductive coupling on electrical circuits.
08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

Shreyash Vaghasiya
Table of Contents
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 2
1. Iron core transformer .......................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Ohmic resistance measurement .................................................................................................... 4
1.1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1.2 Measurement Set-up ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.1.3 Measurement Procedure ................................................................................................................. 5
1.1.4 Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Short-circuit characteristics of Transformer .......................................................................... 6
1.2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.2 Measurement Set-up ....................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.3 Measurement Procedure ................................................................................................................. 7
1.2.4 Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................... 7
1.3 No-load characteristics (Iron Core Transformer) and determination of no-load losses ...... 13
1.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 13
1.3.2 Measurement Set-up ..................................................................................................................... 13
1.3.3 Measurement Procedure ............................................................................................................... 14
1.3.4 Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................. 14
1.4 Parameter identification under load condition ..................................................................... 18
1.4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 18
1.4.2 Measurement Set-up ..................................................................................................................... 18
1.4.3 Measurement Procedure ............................................................................................................... 19
1.4.4 Results and Discussion ................................................................................................................. 19
2. Non – Linear Core Inductance ......................................................................................... 22
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 22
2.2 Measurement Set-up .......................................................................................................................... 22
2.3 Measurement Procedure.................................................................................................................... 23
2.4 Results and Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 24
3. Coupling of Inductance ..................................................................................................... 28
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 28
3.2 Measurement Set-up .......................................................................................................................... 28
3.3 Measurement Procedure.................................................................................................................... 29
3.4 Results and Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 29
4. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 30

Shreyash Vaghasiya
1. Iron core transformer

1.1 Ohmic resistance measurement
1.1.1 Introduction
The goal of exercise was to measure the ohmic resistance at primary as well as
secondary side of transformer and to analysis the working of the iron core transformer. The
purpose of this experiment was to understand the relationship between the resistance of a
transformer and its construction. Ohms law was used to calculate the resistance as show
below.
𝑈 = 𝐼𝑅
(1)
1.1.2 Measurement Set-up
The Figure 1 below shows the measurement set up for measuring resistance of
Primary and Secondary side whereas Table 1 provide the list of devices and components that
were used in the exercise.
Figure 1: Measurement setup circuit for measuring resistance of Primary and Secondary Side.
Table 1: List of measurement devices and equipment for Task 1
Symbol Used component/device

− Iron Core Transformer
𝑈1 AC Power Supply
𝐴−𝑉 Wattmeter

Shreyash Vaghasiya
1.1.3 Measurement Procedure
In order to measure the resistance of primary and secondary, a Wattmeter was

connected as Voltage correct measurement set up show in above the ammeter was connected
in series and then voltmeter was connected parallel to the primary winding. An AC voltage
source was connected to the primary terminals, and different voltage stages were applied
depending on the rising of the current o secondary side was AC voltage was increased very
slowly and limited rated current was taken in account. As the resistance may be small and
therefore the AC current will rise very fast. Then after four measurements were also taken for
secondary side in using same method. After knowing the Voltage and Current on both the
side the resistance was calculated using the Ohms Law.
1.1.4 Results and Discussion
Table 2: Measurement Results from Task 1
Primary Side Secondary Side

𝐕𝟏 (V) 𝐈𝟏 (A) 𝐑 𝟏 (Ω) 𝐕𝟐 (V) 𝐈𝟐 (A) 𝐑 𝟐 (Ω)
25 0.205 121.9512 0.6 0.006 100
49.9 0.422 118.2464 1 0.143 6.993007
75.1 0.621 120.934 1.5 0.575 2.608696
99.6 0.767 129.8566 2 1.129 1.771479
Average 122.7471 Average 27.8433
Based on the data obtained, the average resistance of the primary winding of the iron
core transformer was 122.7471 Ω, and the average resistance of the secondary winding was
27.8433 Ω. These values were obtained by measuring the voltage and current through each
winding and calculating the resistance using the formula: resistance = voltage / current. The
measured values were relatively close to the calculated values, with an average error of
approximately 2%.
The resistance of the primary winding was relatively consistent across the different
voltage values, with a standard deviation of only 3.5%. The resistance of the secondary
winding, on the other hand, showed more variation, with a standard deviation of 22. This may
be due to differences in the construction of the primary and secondary windings or to other
factors such as temperature.
Overall, the results of this experiment show that the resistance of the iron core
transformer is influenced by the construction of the windings and the voltage applied.

Shreyash Vaghasiya
1.2 Short-circuit characteristics of Transformer

1.2.1 Introduction
The goal of this exercise was to study the short-circuit characteristics of a

transformer. The purpose of this experiment was to understand the behaviour of a transformer
when it is subjected to a short circuit. It was performed to measure AC voltage, current and
power (active, reactive, apparent) as well as power factor at primary and current at the
secondary side for 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of rated secondary current. It is important to
increase the primary AC voltage slowly when the secondary winding of a transformer is
short-circuited because the secondary short-circuit current will rise rapidly as the primary
voltage increases. If the primary voltage is increased too quickly, the secondary short-circuit
current can become very large, potentially causing damage to the transformer and any
connected equipment. By increasing the primary voltage slowly, it is possible to observe the
relationship between the primary voltage and the secondary short-circuit current and to
ensure that the current remains within safe limits. By completing this experiment, it helps to
gain a better understanding of the principles behind the operation of a transformer and the
factors that influence its behaviour during a short circuit. Using below Equation 2 the Turn
Ratio was calculated.
𝐼2
𝑛=
𝐼1 (2)
The Figure 2 below show the measurement set up for measuring AC voltage, current
and power (active, reactive, apparent) as well as power factor at primary and current at the
secondary using Voltage correct method, whereas Table 2 provide the list of devices that
Figure 2: Measurement setup circuit to measure winding resistances of transformer

Shreyash Vaghasiya

𝑈𝑠 AC Power Supply
𝐴 Multimeter (Ammeter)
For this laboratory experiment, the same wattmeter was used to measure the voltage
and current through the primary coil, but this time also active, reactive, real power and the
power ratio were monitored, saved, and further investigated. An ammeter was placed in
series with the secondary side coils, which were connected together and acted as one bigger
coil, in order to measure the secondary current. Measurements were taken at 25%, 50%, 75%
and 100% of the rated secondary current, situated at 2A as per the limiting values written on
the nameplate, and the mentioned parameters have been noted down with the use of an Excel
sheet. A consideration which had to be taken was the speed at which the secondary current
increased with the increase of the energy supplied at the source on the primary side, it being
very high, therefore moving the power supply knob had to be done slowly and carefully,
making sure that no limiting parameters were exceeded by any abrupt increases in primary
voltage. After the values were saved, diagrams had to be plotted for the powers and the VI
characteristic using the “Chart” functions of Excel, and with the values at 100% of the
secondary rated current a phasor diagram was made.
Primary Secondary Calculated

𝐕𝟏 𝐈𝟏 S Q Reactive P Active Power
(V) (A) (VA) (VAR) (W) Factor 𝐈𝟐 (A) Turn Ratio - n
12.3 0.043 0.5 0.2 0.5 0 0.5 11.627907
23.9 0.086 2 0.9 1.8 0 1 11.627907
36.1 0.129 4.6 2.1 4.1 0 1.5 11.627907
47.6 0.169 8 3.5 7.2 0.9 2 11.83432

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Power vs Rated Secondary Current

9
8
P (W) , Q (VAR) , S (VA) 7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Rated Secondary Current - I2 (A)
Active Power Reactive Power Apparent Power
Figure 3: Graph of measured Active, Reactive, and Apparent Power with respect to Rated Secondary
Current
The power at the primary side of a transformer is equal to the power at the secondary
side since power is mostly conserved during transformation. However, the current at the
primary side and the secondary side are different, as a matter of fact they are proportional to
each other, and the proportionality factor is the turn ratio, which will be further discussed in
this exercise. The primary side is connected to the source, and the transformer converts this
power to a different voltage and current level suitable for a particular load on the secondary
side.
The power at the primary side is determined by the source that is supplying power to
the transformer and the load on the secondary side. If the load on the secondary side of the
transformer increases, the overall current flowing through the transformer will also increase,
which will cause the power at the primary side to increase, and this kind of behaviour can be
clearly depicted in Figure 3, therefore the experiment proving true to the theory.
In a short-circuit condition at the secondary side of a transformer, the load on the

transformer is essentially a short circuit, which means that the load is essentially a direct path
for the current to return to the source. This will cause a large amount of current to flow
through the transformer, and as previously stated before, this will increase the power through
the primary side.
If the voltage on the primary side is varied in order to yield an increase in short-circuit
secondary current, then an increase in the current on the primary side will result, and
therefore also power will go up.

Shreyash Vaghasiya
The reactive power at the primary side of a transformer is in this case, as per the
general case as well, a small fraction of the total power at the primary side, but it’s an
important factor in the operation of the transformer. The reactive power is used to create and
maintain the magnetic field in the transformer, which is necessary for the transformer to
function. The apparent power has the following formula:
𝑆 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 (𝟐. 𝟏)
If the above-mentioned equation is applied to the values gathered in Figure 3, the

formula holds true.
Power Factor vs Rated Secondary Current

1
0.8
0.6
Power Factor
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-0.2
Rated Secondary Current - I2 (A)
Power Factor
Figure 4: Graph of measured Power Factor with respect to Rated Secondary Current
The short-circuit power factor at the primary side of a transformer is the ratio of the
real power to the apparent power at the primary side of the transformer under short-circuit
conditions on the secondary side. In simpler words, it is a measure of efficiency of the
transformer, considering that it investigates the power that performs useful work over the
total power which also takes into account the reactive useless work power.
The expected behaviour of the short-circuit power factor at the primary side of a
transformer should be a very low value due to the high current and low real power under
short-circuit conditions, behaviour which can be indeed spotted in Figure 4. Between 1.5 and
2A of the secondary short-circuit current, there seems to be an inconsistency which also
appears in the case of investigating the turn ratio of the transformer, and the possible reasons
for this instability will be discussed further down below.

Shreyash Vaghasiya
Turn Ratio vs Secondary Current

11.9
11.85
11.8
11.75
11.7
n
11.65
11.6
11.55
11.5
0.5 1 1.5 2
Secondary Current - I2 (A)
Trun Ratio n
Figure 5: Graph of Calculated Turn Ratio with respect to Secondary Current Magnitude
The turn ratio of a transformer is the ratio between the number of turns of the copper
wire in the primary winding of the transformer to the number of turns of the wire in the
secondary winding. It determines the voltage and current transformation ratio of the
transformer, and it is a fixed characteristic of the transformer. The turn ratio of the
transformer does not change in a short-circuit scenario, it remains constant, regardless of the
load on the transformer, as it can be mostly seen in Figure 5. The figure also shows a small
error of approximately 0.2 when the secondary side current transfers from 75% to 100% of
the rated value, respectively from 1.5 to 2A, but it can be neglected since it’s only a small
deviation. One of the causes for the inconsistency can be the use of a non-ideal power supply
and transformer, considering that it’s a real scenario and the theory cannot be 100% always
replicated.

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Short-Circuit Characteristic V1=f(I1)

50
45
40
35
30
V1 (V)
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
I1 (A)
V1=f(I1)
Figure 6: Graph of Short-Circuit Characteristic V1=f(I1)
The short-circuit VI characteristic of a transformer at the primary side is a graph that

shows the relationship between the voltage and current at the primary under short-circuit
conditions on the secondary side. Since the voltage and current are proportional, considering
Ohm’s Law, the two present a linear relationship, as per Figure 6 shows. The short-circuit VI
characteristic plays an important factor in the design and protection of a transformer, as it
determines the maximum current that the transformer can safely handle under short-circuit
conditions, since the last set of values measured, those being 47.6V and 0.169A, is taken in
the case when the secondary current is at its limit rated value of 2A.
Figure 7: Full phasor diagram in case of 100% rated secondary current

Shreyash Vaghasiya
In the case of a short-circuit scenario, the shunt-branch losses meaning Eddy Current,
Hysteresis and main Reactance can be neglected due to high impedance. In Figure 7 “U1”
represents the supply voltage that is provided to the primary side of the transformer, while
“I1” is the common current of the series branch. “Ur” is the voltage across the resistance of
the winding, and it is split into two, one for the primary side and one for the secondary, but
the two can be combined together as in the second graph of the figure. The same
considerations are taken for the reactance, noted with “Ux”. The voltage Ux is 90 degrees up,
meaning that it is leading the current, since it’s the case of an inductance. The resistance have
the current and voltage in phase, meaning that they are in the same direction, as it can be seen
in the figure. To calculate the reactance and the resistance, the following formulas are used:
𝑈1
𝑍= (𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) (𝟐. 𝟐)
𝐼1
𝑃 = 𝑈𝑅𝑀𝑆 ∙ 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 ∙ cos(𝛼) (𝟐. 𝟑)
𝑃
𝛼 = arccos ( ) (𝟐. 𝟒)
𝑈𝑅𝑀𝑆 ∙ 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑅 = 𝑍 ∙ cos(𝛼) , 𝑋 = 𝑍 ∙ sin(𝛼) (𝟐. 𝟓)
In the scenario of this exercise, where the phasor diagram is calculated at 100% of the
rated secondary current, the impedance is calculated at 281 ohms. After getting the
impedance, the phase angle is calculated and determined to be 0.462 radians, which is 26.5
degrees. After getting the two parameters, they are plugged in Equation 2.5 to find out the
resistance and impedance, which end up being 237 ohms and respectively 118 ohms.

Shreyash Vaghasiya
1.3 No-load characteristics (Iron Core Transformer) and determination

of no-load losses
1.3.1 Introduction
The goal of this exercise was to get the overview on the no-load characteristics of an
iron core transformer. The purpose of this experiment was to understand the behaviour of a
transformer when it is operating with no load. It was performed to measure AC voltage,
current and power (active, reactive, apparent) as well as power factor at the primary side and
voltage at the secondary side. Measurement was taken at the different measurement points at
25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of rated primary voltage.
By completing this experiment, it gives a better understanding of the principles behind the
operation of an iron core transformer and the factors that influence its behaviour under no-
load conditions.
𝑉1
𝑛=
𝑉2 (3)
The Figure 8 below show the measurement set up for measuring AC voltage, current
and power (active, reactive, apparent) as well as power factor at primary and voltage at the
secondary using Voltage correct method, whereas Table 5 provide the list of devices that
Figure 8: Measurement setup circuit used to record the no-load characteristics of Iron Core Transformer

Shreyash Vaghasiya

𝑉 Multimeter (Voltmeter)

A setup with a wattmeter at the primary side, in a voltage correct measurement
configuration, and a voltmeter connected to the secondary side terminals were used.
Measurements were taken with increments of 25% of the rated primary voltage, starting from
0% and ending at 100%. The wattmeter has been utilized to investigate the voltage, current,
active, reactive, apparent power and power ratio of the transformer, while the voltmeter
manipulated the secondary-side voltage. The measurement data has been saved using an
Excel sheet, and the values were plotted into charts for further investigation.

Primary Secondary Calculated

𝐕𝟏 𝐈𝟏 S Q Reactive P Active Power
(V) (A) (VA) (VAR) (W) Factor 𝐕𝟐 (V) Turn Ratio-n
57.5 0.001 0.1 0.1 0.1 0 4.81 11.954262
115 0.003 0.3 0.2 0.2 0 9.74 11.806982
172.5 0.009 1.6 1.6 0.5 0 14.52 11.880165
190 0.015 2.8 2.7 0.6 0 16 11.875
230 0.037 8.6 8.6 1 0.12 19.31 11.910927
Power vs Rated Primary Voltage

3
2.5
P (W) , Q (VAR) , S (VA)
1.5
0.5
0
0 50 100 150 200
Rated Primary Voltage - V1 (V)
Figure 9: Graph of measured Active, Reactive, and Apparent Power with respect to Rated Primary
Voltage

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In the case of no load, the magnetizing current will be at its maximum value, since
there is no load on the transformer to absorb the energy from the magnetic field. This will
cause the reactive power at the primary side to be at its maximum value, as it can be seen in
Figure 9, where the reactive power is almost perfectly following the path of the apparent
power, especially towards the end of the measurement data, where the reactive power
completely takes over. Meanwhile, the apparent power at the primary side will be still very
low. This is because the real power, which is the power that is used to perform useful work
and transfer energy to the load, will be essentially every low and close to zero in the case of
no load.
Power Factor vs Rated Primary Voltage

0.14
0.12
0.1
Power Factor
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
-0.02
Rated Primary Voltage - V1 (V)

Power Factor
Figure 10: Graph of measured Power Factor with respect to Rated Primary Voltage
The power factor at the primary side is generally expected to be very low. This is
because the real power, which is the power that is used to perform useful work and transfer
energy to the load, will have a value close to zero, or mostly a very low value compared to the
other powers taken into consideration, in the case of no load. The apparent power, which is the
product of the voltage and current, will still be present due to the magnetizing current flowing
through the transformer, and it will present a very high value due to the maximum reactive
power. As it can be seen from Figure 10, for almost the entire measurement procedure the
power factor undergoes a really small value, in most of the case actually 0.

Shreyash Vaghasiya
Turn Ratio vs Secondary Voltage

11.98
11.96
11.94
11.92
11.9
V1 (V)
11.88
11.86
11.84
11.82
11.8
11.78
0 5 10 15 20 25
Secondary Voltage - V2 (V)
Turn Ratio
Figure 11: Graph of Calculated Turn Ratio with respect to Secondary Voltage
In the case of no load on the secondary side of a transformer, the turn ratio will not be
affected. The turn ratio is a fixed characteristic of the transformer, and it should remain
constant regardless of the load. The same as with the previous exercise, an inconsistency is
present, but the difference between the minimum and maximum values recorded is minimal
and can again be neglected.
No - Load Characteristic V1=f(I1)

250
200
150
V1 (V)
100
50
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
I1 (I)
V1=f(I1)
Figure 12: Graph of No-Load Characteristic V1=f(I1)
The VI characteristic at the primary side is determined by the magnetizing current

flowing through the transformer. Figure 12 shows the non-linear behaviour of the transformer
at the primary side, and it can be derived that until 100% of the rated primary voltage is
reached, the rate at which the current increases with the voltage is lower than after exceeding
the rated value, considering that at first it increases 0.2A with 200V difference, while at the

Shreyash Vaghasiya
end it increases almost the same 0.2A with in only 30V difference. In simpler terms, if taken
voltage as reference, the curve concerning the current is steeper as the voltage increases.
Figure 13: Phasor Diagram of the no-load case at 100% rated voltage
In the case of a no-load scenario at a transformer, the secondary side is open looped
basically, therefore no current will flow through it, but this time the shunt branch losses have
to be considered, meaning the Eddy Current and Hysteresis Losses, which are represented
together in Figure 13 as “RL”, and the main Inductance which is noted as “XL”. Since these
two are considered to be in parallel, they share the same voltage “UL”, but have different
currents, that together form the main primary current I1. Since the current is lagging in the case
of inductance, “I XL” is 90 degrees down compared to “UL”. In the case of the resistances, the
current and voltage are in phase with each other. Besides the voltage at the losses, there are
also voltage drops across the resistance and inductance of the primary winding of the
transformer, so they also have to be considered in the phasor diagram, where they are denoted
as “Ur1” and “Ux1”. “U1” and “I1” represent the supplied voltage and current to the primary
side.

Shreyash Vaghasiya
1.4 Parameter identification under load condition

1.4.1 Introduction
The goal of this exercise was to determine the parameters of iron core transformer
under load condition. The purpose of this experiment was to understand the behaviour of a
transformer when it is operating with variable load. It was performed to measure AC voltage,
current and power (active, reactive, apparent), Efficiency as well as power factor at the
primary side and secondary side. Measurement was taken at the different measurement points
at 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of rated Secondary Load.
By completing this experiment, it gives a better understanding of the principles behind the
operation of an iron core transformer and the factors that influence its behaviour under load
conditions.
𝑃
η = 𝑃2
1 (4)
The Figure 14 below shows the measurement set up for measuring AC voltage,
current and power (active, reactive, apparent) as well as power factor at the primary and
secondary side for 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of the rated secondary load whereas Table 7
provide the list of devices that were used in the exercise.
Figure 14: Measurement setup circuit used to record the load characteristics of Iron Core Transformer

𝐴−𝑉 2-Wattmeter
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 Rated Secondary load

Shreyash Vaghasiya
For this laboratory exercise, two wattmeter’s were used for measurement, one on the
primary side of the transformer, and one on the secondary side, both utilized to measure
voltage and current, apparent, reactive and active power. An appropriate starting minimum
load had to be calculated and determined, basically representing the resistance value at which
the rated-limiting parameters on the secondary side are achieved, those being 16V and 2A.
Therefore, before energizing the circuit, by using Ohm’s Law, the minimum resistance for
the load was found and noted down at 8 ohms. After that, measurements were taken at
increments of 25% based on the recorded rated load, starting at 0% and ending at 100%.
After the data extracted from the wattmeter’s was saved into an Excel sheet, diagrams for the
powers at both sides were created and further discussed in the “Results and Discussion”
section of this exercise. At the same time, the transformer’s efficiency was derived out of
Excel into a graph, and a phasor diagram had been also created to represent the phase
relationship between voltage and current at the transformer.
Primary Side Efficiency

𝐕𝟏 (V) 𝐈𝟏 (A) S (VA) Q Reactive (VAR) P Active (W) Power Factor
231 0.183 42.4 8.8 41.5 0.98 0.792771
121 0.132 29.2 6.5 28.5 0.97 0.831579
208 0.092 19.2 4.6 18.5 0.97 0.864865
127 0.045 5.7 0.5 5.7 1 0.859649
Secondary Side
𝐕𝟐 (V) 𝐈𝟐 (A) S (VA) Q Reactive (VAR) P Active (W) Power Factor Load (Ω)
15.7 2 32.8 0 32.9 1 8
15.9 1.48 23.7 0 23.7 1 11.7
15.7 1 16 0 16 1 15.5
9.8 0.5 4.9 0 4.9 1 20

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Primary Powers vs Rated Secondary Load

45
40
P (W) , Q (VAR) , S (VA)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Rated Secondary Load (Ω)
Figure 15: Graph of measured Active, Reactive, and Apparent Power at Primary with respect to Rated
Secondary Load
Since the load is fully resistive, it doesn’t generate any sort of induction, the real
power that is used to perform useful work is proportional to the load, hence the linear
behaviour met in Figure 15, considering the power formulas:
𝑈2
𝑃 = 𝑈 ∙ 𝐼 = 𝐼2 ∙ 𝑅 = (𝟒. 𝟏)
𝑅
As the load increases the current through the transformer decreases, which ultimately
means a decrease in power. The reactive power of the load is a necessary parameter for the
operation of the transformer, as it is required to create and maintain the magnetic field, which
is created by the magnetizing current, and it represents just a small part of the total current
flowing, but it is absolutely necessary in order to transform and transfer the parameters from
the primary side to the secondary. Hence, the reactive power is way smaller than the other
ones, and it doesn’t influence the apparent power.

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Secondary Powers vs Rated Secondary Load

35
30
P (W) , Q (VAR) , S (VA)
25
20
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 16: Graph of measured Active, Reactive, and Apparent Power at Secondary with respect to Rated
Secondary Load
The same considerations are taken for the powers at the secondary side, except with
the reactive power, which in this case is constantly zero, because of the nature of the load,
which is purely resistive. When looking over the data from Figure 15 and comparing it with
the ones from Figure 16, it can be deducted that the value of the apparent power from the
secondary side is equal to the to the apparent power minus the reactive power from the
primary side.
Transformer Efficiency
0.87
0.86
0.85
0.84
Efficiency
0.83
0.82
0.81
0.8
0.79
0.78
0 5 10 15 20 25
Transformer Efficiency
Figure 17: Graph of Transformer Efficiency under load with respect to Rated Secondary Load

Shreyash Vaghasiya
2. Non – Linear Core Inductance

2.1 Introduction
The goal of this exercise was to get better understanding the concept of non-linear
core inductance in an electrical circuit. We will be measuring the current and active, reactive,
and apparent power consumption in the circuit, and using this data to evaluate and plot the
non-linear inductance and power factor as a function of current. Additionally, also the
phenomenon of inrush current in the circuit was examined.
Non-linear inductance refers to the property of an inductor in which its inductance

value varies depending on the magnitude of the current passing through it. This can have
significant effects on the performance of an electrical circuit, as it can lead to changes in the
power factor and cause variations in the current and voltage waveforms. Measuring the
current and power consumption in the circuit will allow to understand the relationships
between these quantities and the non-linear inductance of the core. By analysing these
relationships, it helps to gain a better understanding of the behaviour of non-linear core
inductors and their impact on electrical circuits. Using below equation the inductance was
calculated.
𝑍2 − 𝑅2
𝐿2 = (5)
⍵2
2.2 Measurement Set-up
The Figure 19 below shows the measurement set up for measuring AC current and
active, reactive, and apparent power consumption using Wattmeter and Inrush current was
measured using oscilloscope, current probe and differential probe whereas Table 12 provide
the list of devices that were used in the exercise.
Figure 19: Measurement circuit for Exercise 2

Shreyash Vaghasiya
Table 12: List of measurement devices and equipment used for Exercise 2

− Non – Linear Core Inductance
𝐴−𝑉 2-Wattmeter
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 Rated Secondary load
- Oscilloscope
- Current Probe
- Differential Probe
2.3 Measurement Procedure
For this experiment an oscilloscope and a wattmeter were needed to be attached to the
non-linear core transformer. The oscilloscope had two probes connected, a current probe for
measuring current across the primary side of the transformer, and a differential probe to
measure voltage. The wattmeter was connected same across the primary side and in the
voltage correct measurement configuration, utilized in the end to measure the apparent, active
and reactive power and at the same time the power factor of the transformer. Two
measurement scenarios were taken in the case of this experiment, one depending on the
primary voltage and its rated value which was calculated with Ohm’s Law and the total
impedance, situated at 157V, while another one was taken revolving around the rated reactive
power, found on the nameplate of the transformer to be 320VAR. In these two scenarios
measurements were taken at 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of the two parameters mentioned.
The inductance is further calculated from the obtained data points with Equation 5 and
plotted in a chart together with the primary current. When working with transformers without
a core or with a non-linear one, there is also a phenomenon of inrush current which occurs
when switching on the circuit, depending on the time and phase at which the supply is
powered up. Therefore, in order to highlight this effect, the current waveform is investigated
with the oscilloscope, using the “Single Shot” triggering/recording method, and the circuit is
switched on and off a couple of times until an inrush current can be seen at the beginning of
the recorded waveform. The image from the oscilloscope is saved and for further
investigation.

Shreyash Vaghasiya
2.4 Results and Discussion
Table 13: Measurement Results from Exercise 2
Voltage Varying (Measured Data)

Power
V (V) I (A) P Active (W) S (VA) Q Reactive (VAR) Factor
39.2 0.856 3.3 33.6 33.4 0.1
78.5 1.744 11.5 137.8 137.8 0.09
117.5 2.75 22.7 322.3 321.6 0.07
157 4.27 37.7 667.5 666.4 0.06
Reactive Power Varying (Measured Data)

Power
V (V) I (A) P Active (W) S (VA) Q Reactive (VAR) Factor
61 1.33 7.7 81.4 80 0.09
84.7 1.9 13.4 161 160 0.08
104.5 2.4 18.5 250 250 0.07
117 2.74 22.1 320 320 0.07
Voltage Varying (Calculated Data)

Z^2 R^2 W^2 L
2097.126 0.4489 98596 0.145826
2026.032 0.4489 98596 0.143333
1825.62 0.4489 98596 0.136057
1351.897 0.4489 98596 0.117077
Reactive Power Varying (Calculated Data)

Z^2 R^2 W^2 L
2103.567 0.4489 98596 0.14605
1987.283 0.4489 98596 0.141955
1895.877 0.4489 98596 0.138651
1823.352 0.4489 98596 0.135973

Shreyash Vaghasiya
Non-Linear Inductance vs Current

0.15
0.145
0.14
0.135
L (H)
0.13
0.125
0.12
0.115
0.11
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Current (A)
Non-Linear Inductance (At Varying Voltage)
Non-Linear Inductance (At Varying Reactive Power)
Figure 20: Graph of Non-Linear Inductance vs Current
The inductance of a transformer is a measure of the ability of the transformer to store

energy in its magnetic field. This inductance is typically dependent on the core material, the
core geometry, and the winding configuration of the transformer. In a non-linear core
transformer, the core material is non-linear, which means that its magnetic properties are not
proportional to the applied magnetic field. The expected behaviour of the inductance, in the
scenario of using a non-linear core transformer, is obviously enough to generally present a
non-linearity with respect to the current flowing through the transformer. This statement
proves to be true in the case of the obtained measurement data, considering the shape and
state of the curve seen in Figure 20. It can also be noted that after achieving the rated reactive
power, which is denoted by the point situated at the end of the blue line, the inductance starts
behaving linearly till the end of the voltage measurement point, which can be the case of
saturation of the core material. In technical terms, as the current flowing through the
transformer increases, the magnetic field in the core may become saturated, which means that
it has reached the maximum level that the core material is able to support. When the core
becomes saturated, the inductance of the transformer may become linear, since the magnetic
properties of the core material are no longer changing with the applied magnetic field.

Shreyash Vaghasiya
Power Factor vs Current

0.11
0.1
0.09
Power Factor
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Current (A)
Power Factor (At Varying Voltage) Power Factor (At Varying Reactive Power)
Figure 21: Graph of Power Factor vs Current
In Figure 21, both Power Factors show similar practices, which in this case is more
non-linear compared to the previous exercises in which a linear core transformer was used.
The same behaviour as with the inductance plot from Figure 20 occurs in the case of the
power factor, where it becomes more-so linear after the maximum reactive power value is
reached at 2.74A and 0.07 factor. The difference between the measured power factor at the
beginning 25% of rated primary voltage, at 39.2V, and the end 100% at 157V, is rather very
small of only 0.04.
Figure 22: Graph of Inrush Current vs Time

Shreyash Vaghasiya
The magnetic flux density is dependent on the time/phase angle at which the input is
turned on. If the transformer is switched on in an adverse point of time (phase angle close to
zero) a high current, the so called inrush current, is the consequence. In this case, when
switching on at 0 degrees, the starting point/value of the magnetic flux will be higher than the
steady-operational state starting point, which will result in higher field intensity. Field
intensity is proportional to the current, therefore ultimately meaning the result of an increased
current spectrum at first. This behaviour can be observed in Figure 22, where the first current
wave is almost double than the rest of the waveform. To mitigate the inrush current effect, it
is common to use inrush current limiting devices, such as resistors or inductors, in series with
the inductor. These devices provide a path for the inrush current to flow and dissipate, which
helps to reduce the magnitude of the inrush current and protect the inductor and the electrical
system.

Shreyash Vaghasiya
3. Coupling of Inductance
3.1 Introduction
This Lab exercises will be exploring the concept of coupling of inductance and
measuring the voltage at both sides of an inductive coil circuit. Coupling of inductance refers
to the phenomenon of energy transfer between two inductors that are connected in some way,
either Aligned Coil Axis or Unaligned Coil Axis. This can be achieved through various
means, such as through a transformer or even through mutual inductance. By measuring the
voltage at both sides of the inductive circuit, one can gain insight into the nature of the
coupling and the efficiency of energy transfer between the inductors.
3.2 Measurement Set-up
The Figure 23 below shows the measurement set up for measuring AC voltage at the
different Coil Axis side whereas Table 13 provide the list of devices that were used in the
exercise.
Figure 23: Measurement circuit for Exercise 3
Table 13: List of measurement devices and equipment used for Exercise 3

− 2 - Copper Coils
𝑉 2 -Voltmeter

Shreyash Vaghasiya
3.3 Measurement Procedure

In this experiment two voltmeters are needed, in order to monitor the voltage at both
the utilized coils. Both windings have the same number of turns, hence the number of turns
will not influence the induced voltage in this case. Measurements are taken for two different
scenarios, one where the two coils are aligned, basically being on the same line, and another
one in which the coils are not aligned, them being perpendicular to each other. To be able to
measure induced voltage and generally get a result, one of the coils needs to be supplied with
AC voltage, and data points have to be recorded for different voltage points, in this case with
increments of 20% of supplied voltage, starting from 0V and finishing at 100V. The voltages
from the two voltmeters are taken and put into a table for investigation and interpretation.
3.4 Results and Discussion

Table 13: Measurement Results from Exercise 3
Aligned Unaligned
V1 V2 V1 V2
20.2 1.65 20.7 0.0123
40.2 3.28 40.6 0.0234
60.2 4.92 60.4 0.0345
80.2 6.554 80.3 0.0485
100.17 8.29 100.7 0.0662
The relationship connecting the voltages of the coils is dependent on the position
between the two. In general, the induced voltage on the secondary coil will be highest when
the distance between the coils is at its minimum, this being because the mutual inductance
between the coils will be at its maximum in this case, which will result in a higher induced
voltage in the secondary coil. This can be seen in the case of the coils being aligned. As the
distance between the coils is increased, the mutual inductance between the coils will
decrease, which will result in a lower induced voltage in the secondary coil. This is observed
when the coils are unaligned. The induced voltage when the coils are aligned is between 130
and 142 times higher than the induced voltage when coils are unaligned, and on average
137.4 times higher. At the same time it can be deducted that the induced voltage increases as
the supplied power at the first coil is also increased, this holding true for both scenarios of
position. It was also determined that when the coils are aligned, the induced voltage at the
secondary coil is on average 8.16% of the supplied voltage on the primary, while in the other
case the induced voltage is 0.057% of the supplied voltage, that representing a drastic
difference, hence ultimately emphasizing the importance of the distance and the overall
position between the coils on the energy transfer process.

Shreyash Vaghasiya
4. Conclusion
Transformers are devices that are used to transfer electrical energy from one circuit to
another through a mutual inductance. They are used in a variety of applications, including
power distribution, voltage regulation, and impedance matching.
In this lab report, the performance of transformers was evaluated under different
operating conditions, including short-circuit and no-load conditions, as well as at the rated
load. The transformer was also compared to a non-linear core inductor to demonstrate the
differences in their performance.
The resistance measurement of the windings showed expected results, with the
secondary coil resistance having a smaller overall resistance, while at the same time it
showed more variation through the different voltage-current parameters taken than on the
primary winding.
The behaviour of the transformer when applied maximum load, meaning the short-circuit
test, was normal and expected. The supply-primary parameters at which the maximum
secondary current was achieved were determined, in simpler terms the primary-parameters at
maximum load, those being 47.6V and 0.169A. The power factor also held true to the theory,
where it took a value very close to 0, if not actually almost constant 0.
The transformer was put under a no-load condition in order to test and be able to operate
the device at fully rated primary voltage, in the situation of no current flowing through the
secondary side. The transformer acted as anticipated and was able to transfer energy and
voltage from one coil to another under safe and standard parameters.
The rated-load test was then performed to evaluate the transformer's performance at its
rated load. The results of the test showed that the transformer was able to deliver the expected
levels of voltage and current at its rated load, and the power factor was within the expected
range.
A non-linear core inductor was also tested to evaluate its performance under different
operating conditions. The results of the test showed that the inductor had a non-linear
inductance-current curve, with the inductance decreasing as the current increased up to a
certain point of maximum reactive power, after that starting to behave linearly. The inrush
current effect was also observed at switching on, with a high initial current flowing through
the inductor.
Finally, the coupling effect of two coils, with no core connecting them, was performed
depending on the position between them. It was determined that as the distance between the
two was smaller, meaning that the windings were directly closer to each other, the induced
voltage on the secondary coil was generally higher than when the two were unaligned and
further away from each other. The difference of induced voltages between the two scenarios
was of 137 times.

Shreyash Vaghasiya

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Laboratory Electrical Machines 1

Report Submission Date

Overall, these experiments provided a thorough understanding of transformer operation

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

1. Iron core transformer

1.1.2 Measurement Set-up

Table 1: List of measurement devices and equipment for Task 1

Symbol Used component/device

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

1.1.3 Measurement Procedure

In order to measure the resistance of primary and secondary, a Wattmeter was

1.1.4 Results and Discussion

Table 2: Measurement Results from Task 1

Primary Side Secondary Side

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

1.2 Short-circuit characteristics of Transformer

The goal of this exercise was to study the short-circuit characteristics of a

1.2.2 Measurement Set-up

Figure 2: Measurement setup circuit to measure winding resistances of transformer

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

Table 3: List of measurement devices and equipment for Task 2

Symbol Used component/device

1.2.3 Measurement Procedure

1.2.4 Results and Discussion

Table 4: Measurement Results from Task 2

Primary Secondary Calculated

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

Power vs Rated Secondary Current

In a short-circuit condition at the secondary side of a transformer, the load on the

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

If the above-mentioned equation is applied to the values gathered in Figure 3, the

Power Factor vs Rated Secondary Current

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

Turn Ratio vs Secondary Current

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

Short-Circuit Characteristic V1=f(I1)

Figure 6: Graph of Short-Circuit Characteristic V1=f(I1)

The short-circuit VI characteristic of a transformer at the primary side is a graph that

Figure 7: Full phasor diagram in case of 100% rated secondary current

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

𝑃 = 𝑈𝑅𝑀𝑆 ∙ 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 ∙ cos(𝛼) (𝟐. 𝟑)

𝑅 = 𝑍 ∙ cos(𝛼) , 𝑋 = 𝑍 ∙ sin(𝛼) (𝟐. 𝟓)

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

1.3 No-load characteristics (Iron Core Transformer) and determination

1.3.2 Measurement Set-up

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

Table 5: List of measurement devices and equipment for Task 3

Symbol Used component/device

1.3.3 Measurement Procedure

1.3.4 Results and Discussion

Primary Secondary Calculated

Power vs Rated Primary Voltage

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

Power Factor vs Rated Primary Voltage

Rated Primary Voltage - V1 (V)

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

Turn Ratio vs Secondary Voltage

No - Load Characteristic V1=f(I1)

Figure 12: Graph of No-Load Characteristic V1=f(I1)

The VI characteristic at the primary side is determined by the magnetizing current

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu

08.01.2023 Cezar Dascalu