Sexual Aggression and Entitlement: The Cognition Behind the Dreaded Unsolicited ‘Dick Pic’

Psych8470: Forensic Cognition

Exam ID: 1761628

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Executive summary

Online behavior is a relatively new area of research, and with constant improvements in

technology and social media, the gap in research for online behaviors grows. One particular

online behavior is cyber exhibitionism and image-based sexual aggression, or more colloquially

known as an unsolicited ‘dick pic.’ Currently, there is very little research on this behavior from a

psychological perspective; however, borrowing from other areas of study and using current

literature on exhibitionism and public exposure and indecency shows that there is a clear need

for research on the cognition behind cyber exhibitionism and image-based sexual aggression. By

measuring the decision-making process of image-based sexual aggression in real time through

self-reported measures, the time it takes to choose to send the photo, and how many times the

participant chooses the sexually aggressive messaging over the friendly messaging; then

comparing that to current literature and studies done on exhibitionism and sexual aggression, the

cognition behind cyber exhibitionism and image-based sexual aggression will be explored. This

research would be an important step into understanding online sexual offending behaviors and

help psychologists and researchers assess and treat people that commit these types of sexual

offenses. 

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The scientific justification for the project

Current research and literature about the cognition of sexual offenders is not as specific

as it could be given the current state of psychological research and technology. Cognition is the

process of understanding and maintaining information (Bandura, 1986; Bayne et al., 2019);

therefore, when cognitive distortions happen, there is something mentally interrupting the normal

cognitive process (Bandura, 1986). Cognitive distortions of sexual offenders are a vague mix of

motives and cognition (Baumeister, 1998 as cited in Mihailides et al., 2004; Ó Ciardha & Ward,

2013; Payne & Giacalone, 1990; Ward et al., 2016).

According to Ward (2000), there are five known types of cognitive distortions in sexual

offenders: children as sexual beings, uncontrollability of sexuality, sexual entitlement bias, the

nature of harm, and dangerous world implicit theories (Mihailides et al., 2004; Ward, 2000).

Sexual offenders utilize cognitive distortions to protect their self-esteem, to protect the self from

social disapproval, to avoid cognitive dissonance, and to meet self-deceptive positivity needs

(Mihailides et al., 2004). Examples of this are the correlations between aggression and

dominance and moral justification of violence, as well as sexuality, social dominance, and the

likelihood to sexually harass (Pryor & Stoller, 1994; Ward, 2000; Ward et al., 2006).

This study will be looking at indecent exposure also referred to as flashing and

exhibitionism. The definition of indecent exposure is “the display of the penis to another person

[without consent] and as a limited act without further progress towards assault or intercourse

being intended or desired” (Snaith, 1983, p. 231). Unfortunately, as common as this offense is,

there is suspected under reporting of crime happening because it is seen as a covert sexual

aggression (Gittleson et al., 1978; Rooth, 1975). Based on the current literature on indecent

exposure, offenders have been characterized as males that have a strong and unexpected desire to
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show their penis to others, they do not have any desire to form a relationship or further the

interaction past showing their genitals, and they often do not understand their own behaviors

(Gittleson et al., 1978; Rooth, 1975; Snaith, 1983). There are two categories for the theories as to

why people commit this type of sexual offense: behavioral and psychodynamic (Snaith, 1983).

However, no matter what category the theories line up with, one factor that can be agreed upon is

the hostility and aggression that accompanies the offense (Snaith, 1983).

There is a gap in the current literature of cyber sexual aggression. Essentially, there is

practically no cognition research done for this type of sexual offense, but based on what is

known about offenders that indecently expose, hypotheses can be drawn for cyber exhibitionism.

In psychological research, online sexual behaviors and cognitions are not as well studied as

sexual behaviors and cognitions of sexual offenders outside of the internet. The cognition behind

cyber sexual aggression, cyber exhibitionism, and cyber based sexual image abuse (CBSIA) has

not been studied yet. Most of what is known about cyber sexual behaviors comes from the

phenomenon of “sexting” (Drouin & Tobin, 2014; Megarry, 2014; Naezer & van Oosterhout,

2021) and a limited selection of literature on revenge pornography (O’Malley & Holt, 2022).

Furthermore, the literature on cyber exhibitionism currently comes from the discipline of

sociology, so by combining what the literature from a sociological perspective and what is

currently known about public indecency and exhibitionism, the cognition behind cyber

exhibitionism can be studied.

Comparing offline exhibitionism and indecent exposure to cyber exhibitionism and

indecent exposure, otherwise known as cyber flashing, research can gauge if similar cognitive

distortions happen between the online and offline context. ‘Dick pics’ can be defined as sexually

explicit images of male genitalia sent via any online platform to the recipient (usually women)
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(Hayes & Dragiewicz, 2018; Mandau, 2020; Waling & Pym, 2019). While this definition covers

consensual image sending, the term ‘dick pic’ is used to describe unsolicited and non-consensual

pictures (Mandau, 2020). These images can fall into two categories, ‘sexting’ or sexual

harassment and aggression. The latter category evolves from a theory that the senders feel a

sense of sexual entitlement which lines up with one of the cognitive distortions of sexual

offenders (Amundsen, 2021; Hayes & Dragiewicz, 2018; Mandau, 2020; Waling & Pym, 2019).

A psychological study was conducted were the researchers found a correlation between sex, self-

rated mate value, trait Machiavellianism, and sending sexually explicit pictures (March &

Wagstaff, 2017); however, there still was not an explanation for the cognition for sending the

photos. The main theories behind why men might send ‘dick pics’ are exhibitionism, social

acceptability, romantic and/or sexual interest, or reciprocation (Mandau, 2020; Oswald et al.,

2020). These reasonings if coded correctly might possibly align with current cognitive

distortions of sexual offenders and give researchers an insight into cognition of cyber sexual

behaviors and aggressions.

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Research Questions and Hypotheses

This study aims to understand the cognition of males who send sexually explicit and

image-based messages and see if there is a correlation between this cyber behavior and in real

life sexual exhibitionism/indecent exposure. As well as filling in a gap in the research about

cyber exhibition/image based sexual abuse and sexual aggression. I hypothesize that males who

send ‘unsolicited dick pics’ are more sexually aggressive compared to those who indecently

expose in real life. I also hypothesize that men with lower self-confidence levels will be more
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likely to send an ‘unsolicited dick pic.’ Finally, my last two hypotheses are that men with higher

senses of entitlement and sexist beliefs about women are going to send an ‘unsolicited dick pics’

with the expectation that recipient will A) like the photo and B) want to reciprocate by sending

their own sexually explicit image back. The main research questions that I am proposing are:

  What is the cognition behind cyber exhibitionism/image-based sexual abuse aka

unsolicited dick pics?

 Does the cognition behind cyber exhibitionism/image-based sexual abuse aka

‘unsolicited dick pics’ line up with what we currently know about the cognition behind

sexual exhibitionism/indecent exposure aka ‘flashing?’

 Will we be able to use the same assessments and treatments for individuals that prefer

cyber exhibitionism/image-based sexual abuse?

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Methodology

Participants

For this study, the participants will need to be 18 to 35-year-old males, fluent in English,

and currently incarcerated. To get participation I would have to contact which ever facilities I

decided to use and gain access to participants from there. Participants will be incentivized to

participate through paid time off work, They will be divided into three groups, those who

sexually offend on the internet, offenders who flash and expose themselves in real life, and a

control group of offenders that were not convicted of a sexual offense.

Measures
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Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES): In order to measure baseline levels of confidence

and self-perceived attractiveness, participants will be asked to take the RSES. The RSES

combines two different subscales that measure both self-competence and self-liking, which make

up self-esteem (Gnambs et al., 2018; Schmitt & Allik, 2005; Supple et al., 2013).

Self-Perceived Attractiveness Scale (SPAS): Another scale that will be used to measure

baseline levels of confidence and self-perceived attractiveness, is a modified version of the self-

perceived attractiveness scale (Lucas & Koff, 2014). Much like the RSES, the SPAS will

measure self-competence and self-liking, the difference being that the SPAS is more sexual than

the RSES. Since the study is focusing on sexual offenders, it is imperative that there are

measures for self-esteem in a non-sexual manner (inward reflection) as well as a sexual manner

(external attitude) and therefore both scales will be used.

Sexual Aggression (derived from Diehl et al., 2012): We will be measuring the sexual

aggression by the frequency of participant’s choice to send the sexually aggressive messages

with each option becoming more sexually aggressive. Each message will be coded into a

cognitive distortion to help measure cognition. Also, we will be measuring the length of time it

takes for the participant to send the sexually explicit photo. To measure cognition behind sending

the photo, as soon as the participants choose to send the photo, they will be given a list of

reasons (cognitive distortions) as to why they chose to send the photo (e.g. “She deserves to see

it"). They will be given the option to choose their top three reasons for sending the photo.

Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale: Locus of Control refers to the

perception of both positive and negative event outcomes as being contingent on an individual’s

behavior (internal) or the result of others, luck, or fate (external) (Rotter, 1966; Finch et al.,

1981). The Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale provides the dimensionality that
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Rotter's scale lacks (Finch et al., 1981). There also isn't much of a difference between the adult

scale and the children's scale because the adult scale is meant to be understood by anyone with a

fifth-grade reading level.

Procedure

After giving informed consent, participants will start the study by taking the Rosenberg

Self-Esteem Scale (1965) and the Self-Perceived Attractiveness Scale (Lucas & Koff, 2014) to

measure baseline emotions and perceptions about themselves. Participants will be told that the

study is to measure their sociability and likeability and will then be asked to create a fake social

media account and profile. They will be asked to pick an avatar to represent them and to answer

basic demographic questions. Then participants will be given six to eight attractive people to

send ‘friend requests’ to. A real-life confederate will be used as the friend that ‘accepts’ the

‘friend request.’ Once the participant becomes ‘friends’ with the confederate, they will be

prompted to send different types of pre-prompted messages that will be group into sexual

aggressive categories. These messages will be coded to measure sexual aggression and we will

also be measuring the length of time it takes for participants to choose to send the sexually

explicit photo. Once participants select that option, they will be given a selection of cognitive

choices for them to choose from to explain why they chose to send the image. Participants will

end with taking the Locus of Control Scale for adults (Nowicki and Strickland, 1981; Finch et

al., 1981) to measure how they perceived that situation and the control they had over their

actions. 

Analysis

Once the data has been collected, we will conduct a multiple regression analysis. The

predictor variables are self-esteem, self-perceived attractiveness, and the locus of control over
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the interaction. The outcome variables are sexual aggression and the cognitive distortions behind

the ‘dick pic.’ Correlations between the cognition behind sending the sexually explicit picture

and self-reported questionnaires will be calculated to assess concurrent validity between the two

types of measures.

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Budget

Since this study is using confederates, we will need to pay the post-graduate confederates

for their time or use the University of Kent Post Graduate Psychology department’s computer

programing needed to complete the study. If the confederates are used for the study, they will be

paid only for their time assisting with the simulation and reimbursed for any travel needs to and

from the forensic setting. With the UK’s minimum wage being £10 and the need for skills and

knowledge to assist with data collection in a forensic setting, the confederates will be paid £12

per simulation. Based on the number of participants needed for the study, there will be two

confederates. The closest prisons by train are in Maidstone, and train tickets are about £15

roundtrip. The total amount to pay them will be £1,430 once travel reimbursements are factored

in.

As for material needed to conduct the study, all of the scales have been attained through

the use of the University of Kent’s library database. Due to the nature of the secure facilities, the

only materials we will be allowed to bring in will be computers with the surveys and the

computer program for the pseudo social media account that participants will be asked to create.

A cheap but efficient laptop will cost £569.97 on Laptopsdirect.Co.Uk (2023), and due to the

nature of the study there will need to be at least two of them, totalling to be £1,139.94.
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Finally, to incentivize the participants, they will be offered paid time off work in place of

participating in the study. The total budget will be £2,570, which is very inexpensive for this

study. Even though the budget is inexpensive, the data if significant will be much needed to help

understand the cognition behind cyber sexual aggression.

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Ethical considerations

The nature of the sample population is vulnerable; therefore, any data collection will be

anonymized, and participation will be voluntary. Participants will be given an information sheet

that contains an incomplete disclosure about the study because of the deception aspect.

Participants will be allowed to ask questions before the study begins to ensure complete

understanding of the study. Informed consent sheets will be given once participants understand

what we are asking them to do. At the end of the study, there will be a debriefing of what we

were actually studying during the procedure. Additionally, we are asking offenders to recommit

the similar crimes for research purposes, this might affect their treatment progress, thus it is

important that we cooperate with the clinicians running their treatment programming as well as

making sure that the participants have potential just been admitted into treatment. The

confederates of the study will be briefed on what to expect and how to handle pictures. None of

the pictures will be kept nor identifiable, but for the purpose of the study it is important that the

participants feel they are talking to a real person that is not involved in the data collection.

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Anticipated outcomes and impact of the research project

I expect to find that ‘dick pics’ are more frequently sent when the option is to send one is

available. Also, I believe that the younger the participant is the more likely they will be to send

the picture. Based on the current literature, I expect to see that one of the cognitive distortions

behind cyber exhibitionism is entitlement (Amundsen, 2021; Hayes & Dragiewicz, 2018;

Mandau, 2020; Waling & Pym, 2019) . With this study, I expect to see many cognitive

similarities between sexual offenders that prefer cyber exhibitionism and those who prefer

offline exhibitionism. Specifically, in terms of having similar cognitive distortions about their

actions and their justifications as to why they might send the photo. I also expect to see a sixty-

eighty percent rate of sexual aggression from both groups of sexual offenders compared to the

control group of offenders without a sexual conviction.

Using the RSES and SPAS (Lucas & Koff, 2014; Supple et al., 2013), there will be a

better insight into participants’ inner perceptions of the self as well as how they view, they

should be treated by others. The anticipated results are that the participants will have lower self-

esteem but higher senses of entitlement. The Locus of Control Scale (Finch et al., 1981) will be

used to see how in control of the situation the participants feel they are because based on Rooth’s

(1975) paper, exhibitionists do not feel in control or even remember why they performed the

actions that they did. I expect some participants to immediately want to send the picture whereas

others might slowly build up the aggression before choosing to send the photo.

Ultimately, the impact of this research project will be to fill a gap in the literature on the

cognition between cyber sexual aggression and sexual harassment. Additionally, this research

might give insight into the cognition behind flashers and indecent exposure. The goal is to use

this study to create a questionnaire to give to sexual offenders convicted of indecent exposure
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and cyber exhibitionism. By understanding the cognition behind cyber exhibitionism and

indecent exposure, we can develop treatments that will help reshape the cognitive distortions and

the offending behaviors.

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Total: 2843/3000
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