Logic PDF

03/04/2023
Formal Logic Mathematical Logic
✓ The science or study of how to evaluate arguments & ✓ Mathematical logic (or symbolic logic) is a branch of
reasoning. mathematics with close connections to computer science.
✓ It differentiate correct reasoning from poor reasoning. ✓ Mathematical study of logic and the applications of formal
logic to other areas of mathematics.
✓ It is important in sense that it helps us to reason correctly.
✓ It also study the deductive formal proofs systems and
✓ The methods of reasoning. expressive formal systems.
Four Divisions:
Set Theory Recursion Theory
Proof Theory Model Theory
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D. Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
Statement Example
Which of the following are statements?
A statement (or proposition) is a declarative sentence which
is either true or false, but not both. 1. Manila is the capital of the Philippines. Is true
A statement.
The truth value of the statements is the truth and falsity of
the statement. 2. What day is it? It is a question
Not a statement.
3. Help me, please. It cannot be categorized as true or false.
Not a statement.
4. He is handsome. Is neither true nor false - “he” is not

specified.
Not a statement.
Ambiguous Statements Propositional Variable
1. Mathematics is fun. A variable which used to represent a statement.

2. Calculus is more interesting than Trigonometry.
A formal propositional written using propositional logic
3. It was hot in Manila. notation, p, q, and r are used to represent statements.
4. Street vendors are poor.
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Logical Connectives Conjunction
Logical connectives are used to combine simple statements The conjunction of the statement p and q is the compound
which are referred as compound statements. statement “p and q.”
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “and.”

✓ A compound statement is a statement composed of two or
more simple statements connected by logical connectives
Property 1: If p is true and q is true, then p  q is true;
“or” “not” “if then” otherwise p  q is false. Meaning, the conjunction of
two statements is true only if each statement is true.
“and” “exclusive-or.” “if and only if”
p q pq
✓ A statement which is not compound is said to be simple T T T
(also called atomic). T F F
F T F
F F F
Example Statement
The disjunction of the statement p, q is the compound
Determine the truth value of each of the following conjunction.
statement “p or q.”
1. 2 + 6 = 9 and man is a mammal. False Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “or.”
False True
Property 2: If p is true or q is true or if both p and q are true,
2. Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion and Gloria False then p  q is true; otherwise p  q is false. Meaning,
Macapagal Arroyo is the first female Philippine the disjunction of two statements is false only if
President. each statement is false.
3. Ferdinand Marcos is the only three-term Philippine True
p q pq
President and Joseph Estrada is the only Philippine
T T T
President who resigns.
T F T
F T T
F F F
Example Negation
Determine the truth value of each of the following disjunction.
The negation of the statement p is denoted by p, where  is
the symbol for “not.”
1. 2 + 6 = 9 or Manny Pacquiao is a boxing champion. True
False True Property 3: If p is true, p is false. Meaning, the truth value of
the negation of a statement is always the reverse of
2. Joseph Ejercito is the only Philippine President who True the truth value of the original statement.
resigns or Gloria Macapagal Arroyo is the first female
Philippine President. p p
T F
3. Ferdinand Marcos is the only three-term Philippine True F T
President or man is a mammal.
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Example Conditional
The following are statements for p, find the corresponding p. The conditional (or implication) of the statement p and q is the
compound statement “if p then q.”
1. 3 + 5 = 8. 3 + 5  8.
Symbolically, p → q, where → is the symbol for “if then.” p is called
hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q is called conclusion (or
2. Sofia is a girl. Sofia is a boy.
consequent or consequence).
3. Achaiah is not here. Achaiah is here.

Property 4: The conditional statement p q p→q
p → q is false only when p is true and q is T T T
false; otherwise p → q is true. Meaning T F F
p → q states that a true statement cannot
F T T
imply a false statement.
F F T
Example Example
Obtain the truth value of each of the following conditional
In the statement “If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour.” statements.
1. If vinegar is sweet, then sugar is sour. True
The antecedent is “vinegar is sweet,” and
False False
the consequent is “sugar is sour.” 2. 2 + 5 = 7 is a sufficient condition for 5 + 6 = 1. False

True False
3. 14 – 8 = 4 is a necessary condition that 6  3 = 2. True

False True
Biconditional Example
The biconditional of the statement p and q is the compound Determine the truth values of each of the following
statement “p if and only if q.” biconditional statements.
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “if and only if.” 1. 2 + 8 = 10 if and only if 6 – 3 = 3. True
True True
Property 5: If p and q are true or both false, then p  q is true;
if p and q have opposite truth values, then p  q is 2. Manila is the capital of the Philippines is equivalent False
false. to fish live in moon.
p q pq 3. 8 – 2 = 5 is a necessary and sufficient for 4 + 2 = 7. True

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
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Exclusive-Or Example
The exclusive-or of the statement p and q is the compound “Sofia will take her lunch in Batangas or she will have it in
statement “p exclusive or q.” Singapore.”
Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “exclusive or.” Case 1: Sofia cannot have her lunch in Batangas and at False
the same time cannot do it in Singapore,”
Property 6: If p and q are true or both false, then p  q is false;
if p and q have opposite truth values, then p  q is Case 2: If Sofia will have her lunch in Batangas or in True
true. Singapore, meaning she can only have it in one
location given a single schedule.
p q pq
T T F Case 3: If she ought to decide to have her lunch False
T F T elsewhere (neither in Batangas nor in Singapore).
F T T
F F F
Predicate Predicate
A predicate (or open statements) is a statement whose truth A predicate can also be denoted by a function-like notation.
depends on the value of one or more variables.
Example:
Predicates become propositions once every variable is bound
by assigning a universe of discourse. P(x) = “x is an even number.” Now P(2) is true, and P(3)
is false.
Most of the propositions are define in terms of predicates
If P is a predicate, then P(x) is either true or false, depending
on the value of x.
Example:
“x is an even number” is a predicate whose truth depends

on the value of x.
Propositional Function Propositional Function

Example:
A propositional function is a sentence P(x); it becomes a
statement only when variable x is given particular value. “If x is an odd number, then x is not a multiple of 2.”
Propositional functions are denoted as P(x), Q(x),R(x), and so The given sentence has the logical form P(x) → Q(x) and its
on. truth value can be determine for a specific value of x.
The independent variable of propositional function must have

Example: Existential Quantifiers
a universe of discourse, which is a set from which the variable
can take values. There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is even number.
For all x, if x is a positive integer, then 2x + 1 is an odd

number.
Universal Quantifiers
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Universe of Discourse Universe of Discourse
The universe of discourse for the variable x is the set of To convert a propositional function into a proposition, all
positive real numbers for the proposition variables in a proposition must be bound or a particular value
“There exists an x such that x is odd number and 2x is even must be designated to them.
number.”
This is done by applying combination of quantifiers
Binding variable is used on the variable x, we can say that the (universal, existential) and value assignments.
occurrence of this variable is bound.
The scope of a quantifier is the part of an assertion in which
variables are bound by the quantifier.
A variable is said to be free, if an occurrence of a variable is
not bound.
A variable is free if it is outside the scope of all quantifiers.
Existential Quantifiers Universal Quantifiers
The statement “there exists an x such that P(x),” is The statement “for all x, P(x),” is symbolized by x P(x).
symbolized by x P(x).
The symbol  is called the universal quantifier.
The symbol  is called the existential quantifier
The statement “x P(x)”is true if only if P(x) is true for every
The statement “x P(x)”is true if there is at least one value of x
value of x.
for which P(x) is true.
Topic Outline Truth Values of Quantifiers

If the universe of discourse for P is P{p1, p2, …, pn}, then
Quantifier Symbol Translation
Existential  There exists x P(x)  P(p1)  P(p2) … P(pn) and
There is some x P(x)  P(p1)  P(p2) … P(pn).
For some
For which Statement Is True when Is False when
For at least one
x P(x) There is at least There is at least
Such that
one x for which one x for which
Satisfying
P(x) is true. P(x) is false.
Universal  For all
For each
x P(x) P(x) is true for P(x) is false for
For every
every x. every x.
For any
Given any
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Quantified Statements and their Negation
Statement Negation
All A are B. Some A are not B.
No A are B. Some A are B.
Some A are not B. All A are B.
Some A are B. No A are B.
For the things of this world cannot
be made known without a
knowledge of mathematics.
– Roger Bacon
Copyright 2018:
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D. Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
Equivalent Forms of the Conditional Statement Example:
Statement Equivalent Forms Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form:
1. The number is an even number provided that it is
If p, then q (p→ q) If p, q divisible by 2
p only if q p implies q
Not p or q Every p is a q ANS: If it is divisible by 2, then it is an even number.
q, if p q, provided that p 2. Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.
q is a necessary p is a sufficient
condition for p condition for q ANS: If yesterday was Thursday, then today is friday.
Statements Related to the Conditional Statement Example:

Statements Equivalent Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the
statement:
Converse of p→ q q→p If I get the Job, I will rent the apartment.
Inverse of p→ q p → q
Contrapositive of p→ q q → p CONVERSE: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.

INVERSE: If I do not get the job then I will not rent the
apartment.
CONTRAPOSITIVE: If I do not rent the apartment then I
did not get the job.

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03/04/2023

Formal Logic Mathematical Logic

4. He is handsome. Is neither true nor false - “he” is not

Ambiguous Statements Propositional Variable

1. Mathematics is fun. A variable which used to represent a statement.

4. Street vendors are poor.

Logical Connectives Conjunction

Symbolically, p  q, where  is the symbol for “and.”

3. Achaiah is not here. Achaiah is here.

the consequent is “sugar is sour.” 2. 2 + 5 = 7 is a sufficient condition for 5 + 6 = 1. False

3. 14 – 8 = 4 is a necessary condition that 6  3 = 2. True

p q pq 3. 8 – 2 = 5 is a necessary and sufficient for 4 + 2 = 7. True

“x is an even number” is a predicate whose truth depends

Propositional Function Propositional Function

The independent variable of propositional function must have

For all x, if x is a positive integer, then 2x + 1 is an odd

Universe of Discourse Universe of Discourse

Existential Quantifiers Universal Quantifiers

Topic Outline Truth Values of Quantifiers

Quantified Statements and their Negation

Equivalent Forms of the Conditional Statement Example:

q, if p q, provided that p 2. Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.

Statements Related to the Conditional Statement Example:

Contrapositive of p→ q q → p CONVERSE: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.

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