Limits

Limits
The concept of limits is the “heart” of calculus.

Area problem vs tangent problem

The concept of limit is quite old!
Archimedes (287–212 BCE)
I Concept of “infinitely small” – finding the area of a circle

Images courtesy of Wikipedia

Images taken from the textbook (Calculus by James Stewart)
Tangent

Curve C

Line ` is the tangent line to

Line ℓ the curve C at P .

P
Tangent
y y = mx + c

•
P y = f (x)

x
Tangent
y y = mx + c

y = mh x + ch

•
Ph
I For h 6= 0, draw the line
through P and the point
•
Ph (a + h, f (ah )).
y = f (x)
P I Intuition: m ≈ mh

x
Example
y y = x2

•
Ph

Let f : R → R be defined by

f (x) = x2 , x ∈ R.
•
P
Take a = 1.
x
The idea of a limit
y
Given
I a function f : R → R;
I a real number a;
I a function defined on an open
interval I containing a (but
possibly not at a);
x
I L ∈ R.

The limit of f (x) as “x approaches a” is equal to L, denoted by

means
Is our naive idea good enough?
y

x
Is our naive idea good enough?
y

x
Example
sin x
Use a table of values to compute lim .
x→0 x

x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001

sin x/x
Definition of a limit
Let a ∈ R and f : R → R be a function defined on an open interval
containing a, but possibly not at a. For L ∈ R we say that the limit of
f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L and write

lim f (x) = L
x→a
if we can make the value of f (x) as close to L as we like by taking x close
enough to a, but not equal to a.
y y

x x
We need to make the definition to be more precise!
Let a ∈ R and f : R → R be a function defined on an open interval
containing a, but possibly not at a. For L ∈ R we say that the limit of
f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L and write

lim f (x) = L
x→a

if we can make the value of f (x) as close to L as we like by taking x close

enough to a, but not equal to a.
Let a ∈ R and f : R → R be a function defined on an open interval
containing a, but possibly not at a. For L ∈ R we say that the limit of
f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L and write

lim f (x) = L
x→a

if we can make the value of f (x) as close to L as we like

by taking x close enough to a, but not equal to a.

Formal definition of a limit
Let a ∈ R and f : R → R be a function defined on an open interval
containing a, but possibly not at a. For L ∈ R we say that the limit of
f (x) as x approaches a is equal to L and write

lim f (x) = L
x→a
if for every ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε.

x
Example
Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = 2x + 1. Show that lim f (x) = 3.
x→1
Non existence of a limit
When lim f (x) 6= L for all L ∈ R, we say that
x→a

lim f (x)
x→a

does not exist.

y y

x
•◦
x
One-sided limits

x
•◦
Definition of a left-hand limit
Let a ∈ R and let f : R → R be a function defined for x < a near a, and
L ∈ R.
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
and say that the left-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a (or the limit of
f (x) as x approaches a from the left) is equal to L if the value of f (x)
can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently close to a with
x < a.
y

x
Definition of a right-hand limit
Let a ∈ R and let f : R → R be a function defined for x > a near a, and
L ∈ R.
We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
and say that the right-hand limit of f (x) as x approaches a (or the limit
of f (x) as x approaches a from the right) is equal to L if the value of
f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently close to a
with x > a.
y

x
Theorem. Let a ∈ R and let f : R → R be a function defined on an open
interval containing a, but possibly not at a, and L ∈ R. Then,

lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L

x→a x→a− x→a+

x
Example
Determine lim f (x) and lim f (x), if they exist.
x→1 x→2
y

x
Infinite limits
y

x
Definition of an infinite limit
Let a ∈ R and let f : R → R be a function defined on an open interval
containing a, but possibly not at a.
We write
lim f (x) = ∞
x→a
to mean that the value of f (x) can be made as large as we like by taking
x close enough to a, but not equal to a.

x
Formal definition of an infinite limit
Let a ∈ R and let f : R → R be a function defined on an open interval
containing a, but possibly not at a.
Then,
lim f (x) = ∞
x→a
if for every number M > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
if 0 < |x − a| < δ then f (x) > M.

x
Other infinite limits

x
Other infinite limits
y y

x x

y y

x x
 lim f (x) = ±∞ vs lim f (x) does not exist
x→a x→a
y

x
Vertical asymptote
If any of the limits lim f (x), lim f (x), or lim f (x) equal ∞ or −∞,
x→a x→a− x→a+
then we say that the graph of f has a vertical asymptote at x = a.

y y

x
Some observation
Reciprocal theorem for infinite limits
Theorem. Let a ∈ R and let f : R → R be a function defined on an open
interval containing a, but possibly not at a.
Then,
1
lim =∞
x→a f (x)

if and only if
I there exists an open interval I containing a so that f (x) > 0 for all
x ∈ I and x 6= a; and
I lim f (x) = 0.
x→a
Calculating limits
Basic limits
We assume values for certain basic limits.
Firstly, for any a, c ∈ R, lim c = c.
x→a

For n ∈ N, we have
Power Law: lim xn = an for all a ∈ R;
x→a
√
n
√
n
nth root law: lim x= a for all a ∈ R, if n is odd;
x→a
√
n
√
lim x = n a for all a ∈ R with a > 0, if n is even;
x→a
√
lim n x = 0, if n is even.
x→0+
Limit laws
Let a ∈ R, f : R → R and g : R → R be functions defined on an open
interval containing a but possibly not at a.
Assume that lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M , for some L, M ∈ R.
x→a x→a
Then,
Sum Law: lim [f (x) + g(x)] exists and lim [f (x) + g(x)] = L + M
x→a x→a

Difference Law: lim [f (x) − g(x)] exists and lim [f (x) − g(x)] = L − M
x→a x→a

Multiple Law: lim cf (x) exists and lim cf (x) = cL for all c ∈ R
x→a x→a

Product Law: lim [f (x)g(x)] exists and lim [f (x)g(x)] = LM

x→a x→a

f (x) f (x) L
Quotient Law: If M 6= 0, then lim exists and lim =
x→a g(x) x→a g(x) M
If lim f (x) = L for some L ∈ R, then
x→a

lim (f (x))n = Ln
x→a
p √
n
lim n f (x) = L, if n is odd
x→a
√ √
lim n x = n a, if L > 0 and n is even
x→a

p
Is it true that if lim f (x) = 0 then lim f (x) = 0?
x→a x→a
Example 1
x2 − 3x + 3
Determine lim , if it exists.
x→2 x3 + 2x2 + 10
Limits of polynomials and rational functions
Let n ∈ N. A polynomial of degree n is a function f : R → R given by

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , x∈R

for some a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ R with an 6= 0.

Let f : R → R. We say f is a rational function, if there exist polynomials

p and q, with q not everywhere equal to 0, such that

p(x)
f (x) = , x ∈ R.
q(x)
Theorem. Let f be either a polynomial or a rational function. Then, for
every a ∈ Df ,
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
Example 2
p
Evaluate lim t2 + 2t − 2, if it exists.
t→4
Example 3
|x|
Evaluate lim , if it exists.
x→0 x
Example 4
√
t2 + 4 − 2
Evaluate lim , if it exists.
t→0 t2
Example 5
Let f, g : R → R be defined by
 2
x − 1, if x ≥ 0;
f (x) =
3x, if x < 0;

1, if x ≥ 0;
g(x) =
−5x, if x < 0;
Determine lim [f (x) + g(x)], if it exists.
x→0
Limit is a “local” property
Let f, g : R → R be two functions such that f (x) = g(x) for all x in an
open interval I containing a, except possibly when x = a, then

lim f (x) = L if and only if lim g(x) = L

x→a x→a
Example 6
Determine lim |x + 5|(x2 + 1), if it exists.
x→3
Example 7
(x + 2)2
Determine lim , if it exists.
x→0 x
Example 8
x
Determine lim , if it exists.
x→1 (x − 1)2
Example 9
t4 − 2t2 + 2
Let f : R → R and lim = 4.
t→1 f (t)
Show that lim(f (t))2 exists and find its value.
t→1
Warning!
  
1
Evaluate lim x sin , if it exists.
x→0 x
Squeeze theorem
Theorem. Let f, g, h : R → R be functions defined on an open interval
containing a, but possibly not at a.
Assume that
1. lim f (x) = L = lim g(x) for some L ∈ R; and
x→a x→a
2. f (x) ≤ h(x) ≤ g(x) for all x 6= a near a.
Then lim h(x) exists and lim h(x) = L.
x→a x→a
Example 10
Show that lim x2 cos(x) = 0.
x→0
Example 11
Let f : R → R be a function that satisfies

x2 ≤ (x + 1)f (x) ≤ x3 , for all x ∈ R.

Find lim f (x), if it exists.

x→1
Example 12
Let f : R → R be defined by

x3 , if x ∈ Q;

f (x) =
0, if x 6∈ Q;

Find lim f (x), if it exists.

x→0