M16-Unit 1 - Recip. Comp. (Zadco-AHRT)

ZIRKU ISLAND TRAINING
TRAINEE
COPY
MECHANICAL TRAINING SECTION
UNIT 1
RECIPROCATING
COMPRESSORS
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COMP. REF.: REVISION 01 PAGE 1 of 36
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Paragraph Page
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 THE COMPRESSOR
1.3 COMPRESSION RULES
1.4 CHOOSING A COMPRESSOR
1.5 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS
1.6 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
1.6.1 The Crankcase Unit
1.6.2 The Crosshead
1.6.3 The Distance Piece
1.6.4 The Cylinder Assembly
1.7 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR OPERATION
1.7.1 Completing A Full Stroke
1.7.2 Compressor Tests
1.8 TYPES OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR COOLING SYSTEMS
1.8.1 Aftercooling
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1.0 OBJECTIVES
The trainee will be able to:
 Describe the main function of a compressor.
 Explain Boyles and Charles laws.
 Name the two classifications of compressors.
 Identify various types of reciprocating compressor.
 Identify the main parts of a reciprocating compressor.
 Describe the operation of a reciprocating compressor.
 Name the four main parts of a reciprocating compressor.
 Identify the various types of compressor valves.
 Describe the main points for installing a crankcase.
 Explain the function of an intercooler and an aftercooler.
 Explain the function of an unloader valve.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A compressor is a device which provides compressed air or other

gases for a system. Air can be used to control instrumentation,
industrial processes, and provide the power for air motors or
industrial tools.
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1.2 THE COMPRESSOR
The function of a compressor is to raise the pressure of gases

(including air).
Higher gas pressures are needed for the following reasons:
 To transmit power or energy.
 To move gas through a pipeline.
 For storing gas.
 For liquefying gases.
 To produce combustion.
There are several types of compressor used in industry. The type

of compressor used depends on the job it has to do. Some
compressors are only used to provide a source of compressed air.
This compressed air is used for instrumentation and controls. It
can also be used to provide power for hand tools and other devices
that use air motors.
Compressed air can also be used to pressurise a gaseous product.

This can change the gas into a liquid.
There are two main classifications (groups) of compressors

used in industry:
 Positive displacement compressors. This includes

reciprocating, rotary vane, helical screw and lobe compressors.
 Dynamic compressors. A centrifugal compressor is classed

as a dynamic compressor.
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C o m p re s s o rs
D y n a m ic Po s it iv e D is p lac e m e nt
Axia l C e n t rifu g a l Ra dia l Ce nt rifug a l Ro t a ry Re c ip ro c a t in g
S c re w Ho riz o n t a l
Lo b e Ve rt ic a l
Ro t a ry va ne An g le
Liq u id rin g Ra d ia l
V o r Y t ype
W t yp e
The main uses for a compressor are as follows:
 Providing air for instrumentation.
 Providing air for plant equipment (actuators etc).
 Cooling in refrigeration plants.
 Increasing the pressure in main booster stations.
 Bottling gas for sale or storage.
 Compressing wet gas.
 Compressing hydrogen.
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1.3 COMPRESSION RULES
The compression ratio of a reciprocating compressor is the ratio

between the discharge pressure and the intake pressure.
The displacement of a reciprocating compressor is the total

volume of gas moved in one minute.
There are two laws that relate to the pressure, volume and
temperature of a gas. They are:
 Boyle's law. This states that, the volume of a gas varies

inversely with its pressure, if the temperature remains the
same.
 Charles' law. This states that, the volume of a gas varies

directly with its temperature, if the pressure remains the same.
1.4 CHOOSING A COMPRESSOR
There are three things to consider when deciding what

type of compressor is best for the job.
 The output pressure that is required for the process.
 The volume required.
 The type of product that is being compressed.
1.5 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS
When a compressor works on exact volume displacement it is

called a positive displacement compressor. Its basic operation is to
take the gas from the suction line, trap it between the moving part
or parts and the casing, reduce its volume, and then discharge it
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into the discharge port. Positive displacement compressors

operate on either reciprocating or rotary motion.
1.6 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
A reciprocating compressor is the most common type of positive

displacement compressor. (see figure 1.1).
Figure 1-1
Sometimes gas must be compressed to a high pressure to meet

the demand requirements. It is not often possible to increase the
pressure enough in one step. Therefore, the increased pressure
must be done in stages. Each stage or cylinder increases the
pressure. Compressed gas from the discharge of the first cylinder
is fed into the inlet of the second cylinder. This is called a multi-
stage compressor.
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Reciprocating compressors are made up of four main units:
 The crankcase.
 The crosshead.
 The distance piece.
 The cylinder. (see figure 1.2).
Figure 1-2.
1.6.1 The Crankcase Unit
A prime mover is used to provide the power to drive a

reciprocating compressor. The prime mover provides power to the
crankshaft assembly. Inside the crankshaft assembly the rotary
power is converted to reciprocating motion. (see figure 1.3).
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Figure 1-3.
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The crankcase is normally made of cast iron which is machined to

the correct shape and size of the compressor. The shape and size
will depend on how many stages it will have, and the length of
stroke etc. (see figure 1.4).
Figure 1-4.
The bearings used in a crankcase assembly are normally split

journal and thrust bearings. They consist of four parts, the top
and bottom halves of the split bearing, and the bearing cap and
seat (see fig. 1.5).
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Figure 1-5.
Bearing seats in the crankcase must be accurately aligned. To get

this accuracy the casting must be lined bored. This will eliminate
sagging or strain in the crankshaft. If the positions of the
bearing seats are misaligned it will cause the crankshaft to bend.
This will reduce the life of the bearings and crankshaft and cause
breakage.
Web deflection.
In order to make sure the bearings are not distorting the

crankshaft (bending or twisting it), web deflection readings are
taken. Two readings are taken at 180° to each other. The first
measurement is taken between the web of the crankshaft. The
crankshaft is then rotated 180° and the same web is measured
again. The difference between the two readings is the deflection.
This test could also reveal if the crankshaft is bent. (see figure
1.6).
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Figure 1-6.
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Sections of the crankshaft are offset. The offsets are called

throws. The throws travel in a larger circle of travel than the
shaft itself. In figure 1.7 the distance the throw moves from
position A to position B is amount of linear motion of the piston.
(see figure 1.7).
Figure 1-7.
The crankcase unit must have a good foundation on which to sit so

that it may run correctly.
There are important points that need to be understood concerning

the installation of the crankcase unit. They are as follows:
 Machine Base. The crankcase unit must have a good base to

sit on. To prepare a base the height of the centre line must be
determined. We allow for a concrete base, the sole plates, and
the height to the centre of the crankcase.
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The crankcase unit is set a little lower than its final height. This is
to allow for enough room to shim the crankcase later. (see figure
1.8).
Figure 1-8.
 Sole plates. The sole plates are attached and levelled on top
of the concrete base. Care should be taken during the
installation of the sole plates. If they are not installed correctly
they can cause problems during the operation of the
compressor. Sole plates provide a level surface from which to
shim the machine. A spirit level is used to set the sole plates.
To level a sole plate, we must first place a small amount of
grout under the plate. Then we find the highest corner. This is
used as the starting point. The other three corners are then
raised to the height of the starting point. The levelling exercise
is carried out in three steps or spirit level readings. There can
be any number of sole plates under one crankcase. The
number used will depend on the its size. (see figure 1.9).
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Figure 1-9.
 Crankcase. Care must be taken while bolting the crankcase to
the base. If it is not done correctly it can cause the casing to
warp or twist. This will distort the internal parts which are
critical for its operation. It must be levelled using shims during
installation. This should also bring it to its correct height.
 Grouting. After the sole plates have been installed the

machine will still need more protection from vibration and
strain. A grout is poured between the concrete base and the
bottom of the crankcasing. This will allow a more even
distribution of the weight of the machine, and give more
support. (see figure 1.10).
Figure 1-10.
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1.6.2 The Crosshead
The crosshead travels horizontally and must have little vertical

movement. Its movement is limited by the crosshead guides.
Inside the guides the crosshead guide shoes and slippers prevent
any vertical movement of the crosshead. (see figure 1.11).
Figure 1-11.
The crosshead joins the connecting rod to the piston rod.

The crosshead allows the piston rod to move back and forth in a
reciprocating motion, yet allows the connecting rod to have rotary
motion. A lock nut secures the piston rod to the crosshead. The
connecting rod is attached to the crosshead by the crosshead pin
(wrist pin).
The crosshead and wrist pins, and the crankshaft, are separated
from the bushes and bearings by a film of oil. The oil comes from
the crankcase. It is supplied under pressure through holes in the
surface of the bearings. Crankcase oil is used for cooling and
reducing wear.
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Oil is often splashed from the crankcase. (see figure 1.12).
Figure 1-12.
1.6.3 The Distance Piece
The drive unit and the compression unit (the cylinder) are
connected by a distance piece. The distance piece adds
mechanical strength to the unit and stops gas from leaking into the
compressor body. It also allows access to the piston rod packing
and the oil wiper rings.
The piston rod passes through the distance piece and drives the
piston. Piston rod packing prevents the compressed gas from
leaking along the piston rod. It also prevents air from being drawn
air into the cylinder.
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The wiper rings prevent the crankcase oil from getting into the
cylinder. They scrape the oil back into the crosshead housing.
(see figure 1.13).
Figure 1-13.
1.6.4 The Cylinder Assembly
The cylinder assembly consists of the following:
 The piston assembly.
 The cylinder.
 The suction and discharge valves.
Compressor valves are one of the most important parts of a

reciprocating compressor. A worn or damaged valve will allow gas
to leak back. Dirt or other foreign matter can cause damage or
prevent a valve from working correctly. Valves must be properly
installed.
Types of compressor valves.
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There are various types of valves used in reciprocating

compressors. Heavy duty compressors normally use plate valves.
The part that closes against the valve seat is a flat metal plate.
The plates are held against the seat by a set of springs. They have
one or more rings. To open the valve the gas that is used to lift
the plate must overcome the pressure of the gas behind the plate,
and the light tension of the spring. Some times the spring tension
can be controlled. This is done if the there is a possibility that the
valve may slam or flutter. (see figure 1.14).
Figure 1-14.
Another type of valve is a channel valve. A channel valve is a

more common valve than a plate valve. Channel valves use
channel-shaped plates instead of flat plates. Above each channel
is a bowed steel tension spring. (see figure 1.15).
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Figure 1-15.
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The tension springs push from the stop plate. The channels cover
the slots in the valve seat. (see figure 1.16).
Figure 1-16.
Poppet valves are similar in shape to the valves on a car engine.

These valves use separate round poppets to seat against the holes
in the valve seat. (see figure 1.17).
Figure 1-17.
The poppets are usually made of bakelite or other low-friction

material. They can normally provide more capacity than similar
plate valves.
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Valves are held in position by lockscrews and bolts which also hold
the assembly together. They are designed so that they cannot fall
apart. If part of the valve assembly falls into the piston it could
cause serious damage. (see figure 1.18).
Figure 1-18.
Unloaders.
During normal operation of the compressor, the suction and

discharge valves open and close relative to the piston position.
However, the valves can be equipped with unloaders. An unloader
is used to change the load at one end of the piston. The loading
or opening of a valve decreases the capacity of the compressor.
Unloaders can be manually operated using handwheels. (see
figure 1.19).
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Figure 1-19.
Unloaders can also be controlled automatically. Using suction or

discharge pressure, a controller (pilot) can regulate the unloader.
(see figure 1.20).
Figure 1-20
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1.7 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR OPERATION
Reciprocating compressors operate on the principle of increasing

the pressure of gas by reducing the space that it occupies. The
gas is trapped in a space inside the cylinder or casing, then
displaced (pushed) into a smaller space. The larger the reduction
in area, the larger the increase in pressure. (see figure 1.21).
Figure
Inside a reciprocating compressor is a1-21.
piston that compresses the
gas. Sometimes they have more than one piston. A reciprocating
compressor is the most efficient type of compressor. It draws a
volume of gas into the cylinder, then traps it between the piston
and the cylinder wall. (see figure 1.22).
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Figure 1-22.
As the piston moves forward the gas is compressed as it is forced

into a smaller space. The compressed gas is then forced out
through the discharge line. (see figure 1.23).
Figure 1-23.
The back-and-forth movement of the piston displaces the gas and

gives it pressure. The cylinder valves control the flow of gas
through the cylinder.
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There are two sets of valves, they are the suction and discharge
valves. (see figure 1.24).
Figure 1-24.
The gas enters the cylinder through the suction valves and
leaves through the discharge valves. Both sets of valves act as
check valves because they allow flow in one direction only. They
only open when there is a pressure difference. For the suction
valves to open the pressure in the suction line must be higher than
the pressure of the gas in the cylinder. (see figure 1.25)
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Figure 1-25.
When the pressure is equal on both sides of the suction valves

they will close. This prevents any backflow (gas going back into
the suction line).
When the pressure is greater in the cylinder than in the discharge

line, the discharge valves open. The gas then flows into the lower
pressure area in the discharge line.
When the piston moves it is called a stoke. It has one forward

and one backstroke. The forward stroke is called the
compression stroke
The forward and backstrokes together are called one full stroke,
which is one revolution of the crankshaft. (see figure 1.26).
Figure 1-26.
A single-acting piston discharges once during one revolution.

This is the compression stroke. (see figure 1.27).
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Figure 1-27.
The backstroke is called the suction or intake stoke. (see figure
1.28).
Figure 1-28.
Most heavy-duty reciprocating compressors have double-acting

pistons. Double-acting pistons discharge twice during one
revolution. Gas is compressed on both sides on the piston. They
have two sets of suction valves and two sets of discharge
valves. (see figure 1.29).
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Figure 1-29.
In figure 1.30 the piston is moving away from what is called the
crank end of the cylinder. This is the forward stoke. It has
compressed the gas in what is called the head end of the cylinder.
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The gas enters the cylinder from an area called the inlet port and
is discharged into an area called the discharge port. (see figure
1.30).
Figure 1-30.
1.7.1 Completing A Full Stroke
As the piston moves forward towards the head-end on the

forward stroke, the pressure in the crank-end (inside the
cylinder) reduces. When the pressure in the crank-end (inside the
cylinder) reduces to below the pressure in the inlet port, then the
crank-end suction valves open. This allows a volume of gas to
be drawn into the crank-end of the cylinder from the inlet port.
When the head-end pressure (inside the cylinder), is greater

than the pressure in the discharge port, then the head-end
discharge valves will open. The gas then discharges form the
head-end of the cylinder through the discharge valves and into the
discharge port.
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When the piston almost comes to the end of the forward stoke, the
pressure in the head-end of the cylinder and the discharge port,
begin to equal. At this point the head-end discharge valves seat
(close).
At the end of the forward stroke the pressure in the crank-end

(inside the cylinder) is the same as the gas coming from the inlet
port. When this happens the crank-end suction valves seat
(close). The crank-end of the cylinder is now fully charged (full of
gas).
The piston now moves towards the crank-end for the backstroke.
Gas is now starting to compress in the crank-end of the cylinder.
At the head-end, the pressure drops (inside the cylinder) to below

the pressure in the inlet port. The head-end suction valves
open to allow a fresh charge of gas to be drawn into the cylinder.
When the crank-end pressure (inside the cylinder) is greater than

the pressure in the discharge port, then the crank-end discharge
valves will open. The gas then discharges form the crank-end of
the cylinder through the discharge valves and into the discharge
port.
When the piston almost comes to the end of the back stoke, the
pressure in the crank-end of the cylinder, and the discharge port,
begin to equal. At this point the crank-end discharge valves seat
(close).
1.7.2 Compressor Tests
Piston rod run-out test.
A piston rod run-out test is done to make sure that the piston rod
is not warped or bent, and that it runs level along its length of
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travel. It is done after the crosshead bearing clearance has been

obtained.
The procedure for carrying out the test is as follows:
 Mount the dial indicator against the piston rod within the
distance piece.
 Rotate the crankshaft 360° so that the piston completes a full

stroke.
 Check for variations in the reading.
 Shims are added or removed from the top or the bottom of the
crosshead to correct any variation in the reading. If shims, for
example, are at taken from the top, they must be placed at the
bottom. If they are taken from the bottom, they must be
placed at the top. This is to make sure the correct clearance is
maintained. (see figure 1.31).
Figure 1-31.
Bump clearance test.
The procedure for carrying out a bump clearance test is as

follows:
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 Remove the discharge and suction valves to get access to the

crank and head-ends of the piston.
 Place a piece of soft material, such as lead, into the cylinder at

the head-end.
 Manually turn the crankshaft so as to move the piston against

the head-end of the cylinder.
 Remove the piece of lead and measure the thickness with a

micrometer.
 Place another piece of lead at the crank-end of the cylinder.
 Turn the crankshaft to bring the piston back against the crank-
end of the cylinder.
 Remove the piece the lead and measure it with a micrometer.
 Compare the sizes of the two pieces of lead. Then adjust the
piston stroke by screwing the piston rod into, or out of the
2:1 ration in There
crosshead. the clearances
should be(e.g.
a the head clearance should be double
the crank clearance).
1.8 TYPES OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR COOLING SYSTEMS
Large amounts of heat are generated during the compression of

the gas. A compressor must have a way of removing the heat.
For a small compressor, such as an air compressor, fins surround
the cylinder. The fins increase the amount of surface that is open
to the air. Most of the heat is carried away in the air by
convection. This is a method of cooling (see figure 1.32).
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Figure 1-32.
For more heavy duty compressors air cooling is not enough.

Sometimes the cylinder and heads have water jackets to allow
for the circulation of cooling water or liquid. (see figure 1.33).
1.8.1 Aftercooling Figure 1-33.
Multi-stage compressors need additional cooling. Not only are the

cylinders cooled but also intercoolers are used to cool the gas
between the stages. Cooler gas has a smaller volume, thus
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compression is more efficient. Cooler gas is easier for the machine

to compress. (see figure 1.34).
Figure 1-34.
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ZIRKU ISLAND TRAINING

1.2 THE COMPRESSOR

1.3 COMPRESSION RULES

1.4 CHOOSING A COMPRESSOR

1.5 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS

1.6 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

1.6.1 The Crankcase Unit

1.6.2 The Crosshead

1.6.3 The Distance Piece

1.6.4 The Cylinder Assembly

1.7 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR OPERATION

1.7.1 Completing A Full Stroke

1.7.2 Compressor Tests

1.8 TYPES OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR COOLING SYSTEMS

The trainee will be able to:

 Describe the main function of a compressor.

 Explain Boyles and Charles laws.

 Name the two classifications of compressors.

 Identify various types of reciprocating compressor.

 Identify the main parts of a reciprocating compressor.

 Describe the operation of a reciprocating compressor.

 Name the four main parts of a reciprocating compressor.

 Identify the various types of compressor valves.

 Describe the main points for installing a crankcase.

 Explain the function of an intercooler and an aftercooler.

 Explain the function of an unloader valve.

A compressor is a device which provides compressed air or other

1.2 THE COMPRESSOR

The function of a compressor is to raise the pressure of gases

Higher gas pressures are needed for the following reasons:

 To transmit power or energy.

 To move gas through a pipeline.

 For storing gas.

 For liquefying gases.

There are several types of compressor used in industry. The type

Compressed air can also be used to pressurise a gaseous product.

There are two main classifications (groups) of compressors

 Positive displacement compressors. This includes

 Dynamic compressors. A centrifugal compressor is classed

Axia l C e n t rifu g a l Ra dia l Ce nt rifug a l Ro t a ry Re c ip ro c a t in g

The main uses for a compressor are as follows:

 Providing air for instrumentation.

 Providing air for plant equipment (actuators etc).

 Cooling in refrigeration plants.

 Increasing the pressure in main booster stations.

 Bottling gas for sale or storage.

 Compressing wet gas.

1.3 COMPRESSION RULES

The compression ratio of a reciprocating compressor is the ratio

The displacement of a reciprocating compressor is the total

 Boyle's law. This states that, the volume of a gas varies

 Charles' law. This states that, the volume of a gas varies

1.4 CHOOSING A COMPRESSOR

There are three things to consider when deciding what

 The output pressure that is required for the process.

 The volume required.

 The type of product that is being compressed.

1.5 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS

When a compressor works on exact volume displacement it is

into the discharge port. Positive displacement compressors

1.6 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

A reciprocating compressor is the most common type of positive

Sometimes gas must be compressed to a high pressure to meet